The cyber democracy in China --美国Assignment代写范文

美国Assignment代写范文:“The cyber democracy in China ”，这篇论文主要描述的是互联网信息技术的出现和发展改变了人们的生活，也对我国的政治制度和公民民主产生了深远的影响，中国网民的数量在逐年的增长，各级政府的门户网站也相应的出现，网络成为了政府与民众交流互动的一个新的渠道，公民通过网络来参与民主已经成为了一种趋势，本文以此为背景，全面讨论和研究中国的网络民主。

The appearance of information technology and its rapid development have great influences on the political regime and public democracy in China. In 2013, the number of netizens have increased up to 618 million, and the websites of government in different levels was almost 80, 000. It is necessary to build an open and interactive modality of the government of China, which is an inevitable tendency. It is probable that the situation of democracy in China will be altered with the network becoming popular in China (Asen, 2001). Chinese government employs the Internet as a new method for a reformation as well, for it will enable the government to become scientific and democratic by promoting people to participate in making public policies. This paper will discuss the cyber democracy in China with this broad background.

In the second part of the paper, the former research of the cyber democracy will be introduced, offering a general understanding of the theme. The literature review of the democracy is necessary to give a brief presentation on the democracy and the cyber democracy of China.

In the third part of the paper, the meaning of cyber democracy will be explained in detail, including the general definition, the key characteristics and the difficult situations of cyber democracy. This part is intended to discuss the connotation of cyber democracy at length.

The fourth part of the paper will analyze the features of the cyber democracy in China. The features of the cyber democracy in China will be discussed from three aspects: the participation of the cyber democracy, the communication and the practice process. Due to the complex situations of China, it is needed to grasp the features of the Chinese information society with the existing of Internet at present (Almond, 1980).

With the internet, Chinese government also makes use of the impact of the internet as new media for a great reform. Promoting citizen participation in public policy making is the performance of scientific and democratic (Fontana, 2005).

As the cyber democracy in China will absolutely generate great opportunities and challenges to the democratic process of China, the social elements of cyber democracy and the different functions of it should be analyzed (Fishkin, 1992). The aim of the paper is to study the possibility that cyber democracy may promote the Chinese democracy politics to boom and to research how it will change the time-honored political ecology (Esarey, 2007).

2.0 The literature review of the research 研究文献综述

2.1 Democracy is a conception continuing to improve

In order to estimate the influence of the network on the democracy of China, it is needed to make more comprehensible of the characteristics of democracy and its meanings for the new information society(Zhang, 2002). There are various and contradictory implications of democracy(Bakardjieva, 2003). The discussions on the effects of new technology of communicating in political society have also existed for a long time. What is more, the conception of democracy is continuing to be improved(Zhang, 2002).

First, in the democratic theories of western countries, it is also hard to give a clear definition for the meaning of democracy (Banda, 2003). Although the strictly correct definition cannot be offered, the fundamental nature of democracy has been accepted by many people (Garnham, 1990). According to some experts, there are five traits of democracy: the first one is the “inclusivity”, which has the meaning that in the aspect of theory, anyone can participate in making the public acts (Gilley, 2004). Second, it is essential that there should be some methods by which citizens can express their cares on the public agendum(Zhang, 2002). If the public agenda is controlled exclusively by the main interest groups, such as companies, statesmen, or the institutions, the democracy will be severely jeopardized(Wang, 2008). Third, the democracy should perform with deliberation (Chan, 2005). Democracy requests a public sphere of people’s careful consideration to put forward their public views (Taubman, 1998). Forth, at the stage of determination, the equality should be guaranteed. At last, when the participation in a direct way is not practical, a representative method is needed to provide service for the performance of democracy (Barber, 1998). Democracy has been referred as a modality of government where people can own an equal capability to take part in the actions which influence their daily lives in the society (Deng, 1992). The above definition possesses 3 parts important to make clear of the criteria of democracy: equality, involvement, and a public area(Calabrese, 2004).

With the appearance of new technologies for communication between each other, democracy began to be attached with some other implications with the background of new technological probabilities(Wang, 2008). Digital democracy has been defined as the employment of information, the technology of communication and the communication through computers in every kind of media for the intention of improving political democracy, or as the involvement of people in the communication of democracy(Wang, 2008). Cyber democracy can be seen as the employment of democratic rules in the space of cyber. It is seeking to make good use of the benefits of the new communicating technology to improve the new forms of democracy (Golding, 1998). The advocates of the cyber democracy believe that the diverse properties of the new media—interactive trait, quick form of transmitting data, chances for many-to-many-communication, adequate information—can make a contribution to the development of the democratic political systems(Hoff, 2000). The cyber democracy has been made probable by the appearance of the Internet on the computer and can be interpreted as a phenomenon of participatory democracy (Groper, 1996). Apparently, many scholars have developed their own comprehension of cyber democracy on the basis of the time-honored democratic concepts(Wang, 2010).

2.2 The discussion on cyber democracy in China

There are many discussions of the cyber democracy in China, for China is in the stage of transition (Tsui, 2003). The social transformation displays in every aspect of the society(Wang, 2010). During this period of time, far-reaching changes are influencing the traditional political orientations (Entman, 2001). The appearance and development of the network even promote the social transformations(Hirschkop, 1996). The political situation in China has been enlarged and enriched by the network communication (Deng, 1992). The new media has highlighted the likelihood of a new democratic system, and the new prospect is developing in the information society of China(Xia, 2008). The seers of cyber democracy have promised people all things: from the autocratic governance to the public involvement; from the dominance of the central power to decentralization; from a society accenting regime to a society emphasizing liberty and the power of people(Kim, 1997). By providing such a likelihood of a factual “democratic mechanism”, the computer network can be employed as a means of publicity serving for the alleged “progressive aims”(Xia, 2008). The mechanisms of publicity to promote the cyber democracy have been built by the national ideological organizations, including the agencies of the government, the media, the system of education, and a diversity of social associations (Hine, 2000).

Based on a research carried out by the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, a large majority of Chinese keep firm prospects for the improvement of the public involvement by the computer network (Davis, 1999). The outcome displays that more than 75 percent of the responders consider the Internet can assist Chinese people to comprehend the political information much better; more than 58 percent of the responders think that the computer network can promote the government to care more about the public viewpoints; and more than 45 percent of the responders regard that they are offered the powerful right to speak on the Internet(Xia, 2008).

The above opinions are all optimistic, which are also spreading out across the mass media of China(Markham, 2005). A famous newspaper in China has carried out a survey on cyber democracy(Watts, 2009). The results indicate that most Chinese people think the Internet has turned into a necessary means for the government to know the political needs of people (Yang, 2008). A majority of the responders in China consider the public communication on the Internet as a practice of positive democracy(Watts, 2009).

The common people have showed optimism on the influences of the Internet, while the government displays an active and open attitude on the new means of public communication (Doty, 1986). The President of China began to chat with ordinary people on the Qiangguo Forum through the Internet (Tan, 1999). The President once said that the leaders of China were inclined to know the viewpoints of people on the Party and the policies of the government. This case was really a milepost of the public communication in China. The live chat between the President of China and the netizens has highlighted the endeavor of the Chinese government in communicating with the public directly (Gennaro, 2006). And it also suggests that the leadership of China has more faith and open-mindedness with the resolution to employ the people-oriented politics (Habermas, 1962).

The discussions on the effects of the Internet in the democratization of China spread across the country’s ideological institutes(Wines, 2009). It has reinforced the implications of the cyber democracy in China (Habermas,1989). However, is it true what people consider the effects of the computer network in the public life? This question will be discussed further in the following part of the paper.

3.0 The introduction of the cyber democracy 网络民主的引入

3.1 The general meaning of cyber democracy

Cyber democracy includes the employment of the technologies of information and communication to assist the governance(Habermas,1996). Cyber democracy is a gather of new methods and old customs, of desires and fears, of concrete progress in the services of the government and the increasing in the evolution of human beings, of great promise and awful risks(Wines, 2009).

The range of the implications of cyber democracy is wide due to the fact that every actions of the government can be touched by the cyber democracy(Wolf, 2006). What is more, the rise of cyber democracy is in the situation when the government and society are facing challenges (Dahlgren, 2005).

3.2 The main activities of cyber democracy

Cyber democracy is increasing along with the improvement of the information technology that is being used in the world to assist the government (Dahlgren, 2001).

The main activities of the cyber democracy can be described in at least five kinds (Hacker, 2000). First, the cyber administration is one activity of it. It can also be called the e-government(Hung, 2006). The employment of the computer network and the communicating technology to reinforce the services of the government are the displays of the cyber administration (Hamel,1993). The computer network is assisting to promote the broad range of such kind of services (Hammersley, 1983). The second activity is the cyber voting. The voting for the candidates can be conducted on the Internet (Nathan, 1985). The voting for the policies of the government can also be realized through the computer network(Hanson, 1990). The third activity is the cyber participation(Baym, 1998). The computer network has increased the interaction between the government and ordinary people, which also includes the participation in the meetings on the Internet and the electronic policy dialogues through the computer network (Dahlgren, 2000). The fourth activity is the cyber infrastructure, for more and more cyber tools are employed to promote the involvement of ordinary people and the building of communities. The tools can include the games, polling, surveys, and the ware of groups (He, 1994). The fifth activity of the cyber democracy is the cyber agenda-setting (Yang, 2009). The employment of the Internet and the communicating technologies has reinforced the agenda of policies, which can benefit the improvement of the governance of the country (Habermas, 1962). 

3.3 Predicament of democracy in cyberspace

Although the benefits of cyber democracy are apparent to be seen, the disadvantages and challenges of the cyber democracy exist in the modern world as well(Kolko, 2000). First, the new cyber technologies can result in some issues, such as the theft of identity, the overload of information and the hooliganism on the internet (Margolis, 2000). Second, there are some traditional opposing opinions on the cyber democracy, such as the possibility of polarizing the views of people and the likelihood of mongering rumors. In fact, the number of the practical objections is large to some degree, not just in the aspect of digital comparison between people who have the access to the cyber democracy media and who do not have (Cary, 2005). What is more, there are also some people who have doubts in the amount of influence that they can make through the participation on the Internet (Dahlberg, 2005). Although some information of the government projects has been supplied on the Internet, the illiteracy of the Internet technology and the digital divide are the factors to deter the online participation (He, 1997). The political progress online can probably discourage non-users to adjust to the new cyber technologies (Herbst, 1993). Therefore, the predicament of democracy in cyberspace can be the challenge for the development of the cyber democracy, especially in the modern world with rapid developing pace (Cary, 2005).

4.0 The features of the cyber democracy in China 中国网络民主的特征

4.1 The participating subjects of cyber democracy in China

In recent years, the Internet has developed with a rapid and furious pace (McLuhand, 1972). With the revolution of the new technologies, China has taken part in this new reformation actively and employed the new communication tool (Kolko, 1998).Based on the study of the China Internet Network Information Center, the number of netizens in China becomes larger and larger (Zhao, 2008). In July, the number of netizens in China has reached 254 million, which is larger than that of the United States (Kolko, 2000). However, the participating subjects of cyber democracy in China cannot include all the citizens of China, because there are many factors that limit the participation of the citizens into the cyber democracy, such as the possession, the acquisition and utilization of the cyber technologies and the methods of political participation(Markham, 2003). The economic-inequality can limit the ability of people to employ the new communicating technologies, and may also restrain their participation in the political, civic and social discussion(Zhao, 2008). For example, most of the tianya users are with high socio-economic status and abundant incomes(Herring, 1993). Therefore, in China, the participating subjects of cyber democracy in China should be examined on the socio-economic status, such as the occupation of people, the education background, and the salary(Zhao, 2008).

According to the researches, there is an apparent divide existing in different groups of cyber users(Markham, 2003). First, the majority of the participating subjects of cyber democracy in China are young people who have the access to the new cyber technologies and who have the skills for political democracy(Kolko, 1998). The young people are thought to be more active, energetic, active and aggressive, who are the main force for promoting the changes of the society(Kolko, 1998). Second, the attainment of education of the participating subjects of cyber democracy in China is high, and most of the participants have a university degree(Butsch, 2007). They are well educated to take part in the political activities of China and to improve the degree of democracy of China(Zheng, 1999). Third, the occupation of the participating subjects of cyber democracy in China can be various from businessman to common workers in diverse industries(McLuhand, 1972). Fourth, most of the he participating subjects of cyber democracy in China are located in rich areas and large cities(McLuhand, 1972).

In conclusion, the participating subjects of cyber democracy in China can be influenced by the social status to a great degree(Cai, 1988). It is one of the limitations of the cyber democracy in China(Markham, 2003).

4.2 The communication of cyber democracy in China

The mass media is the important communication tool of the cyber democracyin China, but it is not serving the Party as a watchdog, but acting traditionally as an element of the state apparatus(Barney, 2000).

A totalitarian regime requests the media to enunciate the ideology of the government and to support the legitimation of the country(Markham, 2003). The Chinese Communist Party also employs the value of the new media which stands for the interests of the Party and acts as the Party’s mouthpiece(Levine, 2002). From the aspect of the content of the news and the operations of the media, the mass media is submitted to the Party completely(Mosco, 2007). On the other hand, the country possesses the media and provides funds for the media (Barney, 2000). The ideological instruction of the Party acts as the guidance of the news(Jung, 2006). The principle of the Party means to dominate the communicating system(Butsch, 2007). The principle has three fundamental elements: that all the news must be reported under the guidance of the ideology of the Party; that they must propagandize the programs of the Party; and they must adopt the leadership of the Party and insist on the organizational principles of the Party. Under the controlling of such a kind of ideology, the news content was always made uncomplicated and consistent, leading to the people’s compliance to the Party(Levine, 2002).

In the Republic of China, the content of the news are always controlled by the country’s Party-media(Zhang, 2004). For instance, a famous national newspaper is the People’s Daily, which has been considered as the essential connecting element in the whole communicating system and as the guidance of all other national newspapers(Levine, 2002). When the new guidelines of the Party or the policies of the country have been introduced on the People’s Daily, the local newspaper of the Party or the other media would also publish such news content(Merriam, 1998). The subordinate newspaper is not allowed to deliver inconsonant opinions from the People’s Daily(Yang, 1999). The Xinhua News Agency isalso a top news agency in China, which represents the voice of the Party on a wide range of the topics(Mosco, 2007). The Party requests the provincial TV and print media to employ the news of Xinhua News Agency as the primary information sources on the sensitive topics of the politics(Keane, 2001). The CCTV has the largest number of TV viewing audience on earth and transmits the propaganda of the nation to people (Barney, 2000). These mass media of the nation are important in the communicating system of China, which ensures that the national tool of propaganda is controlled by the Party(Mosco, 2007).

The circumstance of the Chinese mass media is under significant change and the media system of China has been hit by the wave of marketization and neoliberalism(Lee, 2001). With the development of the market and the globalization, a wide-range transformation is implemented by the mass media of China to rebuild the strength of the propaganda system of the Party(Mosco, 2007).

With the development of the information society, the new media offers great changes to affect the democracy (Jensen, 2007). However, there is also a conflict between the political control and the commercialization, which hinders the development of the cyber democracy(Mann, 1996). The predicament of the traditional media of China confines the development of the democratic potential of the new media as well(Lupia, 1998). The information system has reconstructed the power relations in the communicating and political systems, causing a democratic divide in the People’s Republic of China(Mosco, 2007).

4.3 The practice process of cyber democracy in China

First, the cyber democracy in China has the deliberation process, which is employed to ensure the stable of the country and prevent some problems online(Mann, 1996). The preconditions of the cyber deliberative discussion are the sharing of the information, the searching of the information and the integrating of information online(Lupia, 1998). Every day, most of the news will be broadcast or disclosed on the Internet; therefore, the deliberation process is necessary to protect the country from being harmed by false or unreal information(Mann, 1996).

In China, the blogs and forums are popular online, which provide citizens to take part in the cyber democracy(Lee, 2001). The practice process of cyber democracy in China relies on these different kinds of social media. In turn, the social media also count on the government of China or the political support of the country(Mann, 1996).

Second, the political control has been thought to be the biggest block to the practice process of Chinese cyber democracy(Lee, 2001). In the information society of China, the control of the politics and the system of observation are common (Baym, 1998). The leadership in China establishes the legitimacy of it on the growth of the economy. Thus, the capability of the country has to serve the interests of economy (Lee, 2001). The government of China not only promotes the economic growth of the country, but also makes good use of the new communicating technologies to enhance the surveillance capability of the government (Baym, 1998).

The government of China has formulated some rules to regulate the website operators, which is called the online censorship(Zheng, 2005). According to the rules, some so-called sensitive words are not allowed to employ on the online community or blogs (Barber, 2004). Also, the information of some western media is impeded on the forum of China so as to prevent some taboo or sensitive topics from disturbing the society of China(Lupia, 1998). From this aspect, the practice process of cyber democracy in China is not so pleasant or satisfying(McChesney, 1999). The political control affects the practice process of cyber democracy in China to a great degree(Tuinstra, 2009).

5.0 Conclusion 结论

The cyber democracy is always talked about by Chinese people. In China, people can surf on the Internet to obtain the information that they desire and can express themselves on the platforms online(Mann, 1996). The conception of the cyber democracy is changing and becoming much wider. And the predicament of democracy in cyberspace exists not only in China but also in some western countries(Kenez, 1985). Therefore, the implications of the cyber democracy should be studied much further in the future.

Due to the improvement of the information technology around the world, the Internet has been employed to assist the government, which may promote the cyber democracy to some degree (Wakeman, 1993). The activities of cyber democracy are apparent in the modern world, and the rapid pace of propagating the social and political information can offer people with convenient access to the rules and policies of the government.

The new communication technologies have generated the information society in China, and the economy in China becomes more and more characteristic of the political features. Economy and politics are connected in society, so the Chinese information society also has this kind of trait. The cyber democracy is part of politics, but the new communication vehicle belongs to the economy to some degree. Cyber democracy is a conjugation of the economic and political aspects in China, causing some changes in the democratic sphere and influencing the development of the society to a large extent.

There are many cases can be employed to interpret the cyber democracy in China, such as the online communities, blogs and forums. It is an irreversible trend to build a transparent and interactive new form of Chinese government. The democracy in China has been a long existing issue. With the internet, the Chinese government also takes some measures to employ the influences of the new media for a significant reform. Although the Internet has offered the tool for people to take part in the public policy making and discuss the social issues, the limitations of cyber democracy also exist in the scientific and democratic reform of China.

In conclusion, the main aim of the study in the paper is to figure out whether cyber democracy could result in the booming of the Chinese democracy politics and how it can alter the Chinese traditional political ecology. From the above analysis, due to the complex political circumstances in China and the limitations of the new communication tool, the cyber democracy can have both positive and negative influences on China, but nowadays the positive effects weight out the negative ones.

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