Assets Economic Opportunity and Toxic Stress--论文代写范文

SES可能影响发展的结果,包括访问和教育质量和社会支持,个体心理过程。最初的社会环境因素,由此产生的心理过程和资源之间的平衡,是由社会经济力量控制。下面的论文代写范文进行详述。

Abstract
Child health, educational attainment, and family socioeconomic status are inextricably linked. We introduce a model that ties together research drawn from the fields of economics, education, psychology, sociology, medicine, epidemiology, neuroscience, public health and biostatistics. Organized around an integrated conceptual paradigm of environmental, economic, familial and psychosocial pathways, we demonstrate various ways SES alters the performance of biological systems, thereby affecting family interaction, stress, school success, and child outcomes.
Key words: child outcomes, educational outcomes, assets, stress

Introduction
A large body of evidence indicates that socioeconomic status (SES) is a strong predictor of school achievement, college graduation and child outcomes in general. Better developmental and health outcomes are strongly associated with family assets; families with greater wealth, more income, more years of education, steady professions, as well as living in neighborhoods rich with services and supportive networks. Child health, educational attainment, and family socioeconomic status are inextricably linked. We introduce a model that ties together research drawn from the fields of economics, education, psychology, sociology, medicine, epidemiology, neuroscience, public health and biostatistics. Organized around an integrated conceptual paradigm of environmental, economic, familial and psychosocial pathways, we demonstrate various ways SES alters the performance of biological systems, thereby affecting family interaction, stress, school success, and child outcomes. In the United States, where there are high levels of child poverty and a limited safety net, the benefits of economic security can be monumental while the consequences of economic distress can be devastating.

There are multiple pathways by which SES may affect developmental outcomes, including access to and quality of education and social supports, health care and health-related behaviors, individual psychosocial processes, and physical and social environments. The initial physical and social environmental determinants, the resulting mediating role of the psychosocial processes and the balance between resources and demands in each stage of development, are shaped by socioeconomic forces. For example, poverty, environmental degradation, and vulnerability are interrelated. Poverty impacts health and education because it defines how many resources poor people have for basic needs thereby defining the amount of environmental risks they will be exposed to in their immediate environment (Olden, 1998).

Educational attainment among adults is linked inextricably with children’s health as well, beginning early in life; babies of more-educated mothers are less likely to die before their first birthdays and children of more educated parents experience better health. (Low et al., 2005; Ross & Mirowsky, 1999) Families and communities play the central role (and bear most of the costs) in providing the supportive relationships and positive experiences that young children need for healthy development. Economic resources provide stability and can reduce many of the factors that might lead to stressful circumstances, thus making life easier for children. Although the primary focus of this paper is educational outcomes, we highlight developmental outcomes more generally because social-emotional, cognitive functioning and health status are highly interrelated. Their basic foundation is formed early, even prenatally.

The architecture of the brain is intricate; higher level abilities are built upon the layers of neural circuits developed initially. MRI’s, biopsychology and cognitive neuroscience demonstrate that adverse circumstances interrupt healthy brain and physical development. Although the early childhood years (birth to 5) are very important, it is still possible for adaptive interventions to take place later in life. Remedial interventions, however, often require greater effort to overcome initial delays, and typically at greater expense. Yet, nurturing environments for all children (those that are safe, stable, stimulating and responsive) strengthen developmental trajectories across all phases of child and adolescent development. In general, there is a strong, two-directional association between socioeconomic status and child outcomes across all developmental periods in childhood and adolescence. Figure 1 focuses on three central components of SES, outlining the impact on family life and configuration, neighborhood, stress, and ultimately child educational and socio-emotional outcomes.

The association of SES and developmental outcomes begins at birth and extends throughout life, but the strength and nature of the relationship can vary at different stages of life. The effects of SES in childhood and through adulthood appear to be cumulative, underscoring the value of examining trajectories of SES along with trajectories of risk. Child development is a dynamic process that unfolds from birth to early adulthood. Interacting factors including household assets and social supports provided by neighborhood and community of residence along with responsible caregiving are perhaps the most salient indicators of optimal child development. Among these factors, household assets are one of the most significantly aligned with improved child outcomes and educational attainment.

Families with assets have the means to support and protect their children more readily. By definition, families with few, no, or negative assets are frequently placed in a precarious position as they strive to navigate a path toward enhancing their child’s social, emotional, cognitive, and physical development. One of the most important indicators of an individual’s health is one’s street address or neighborhood. Where you live affects your health, your options, and your opportunities. Numerous researchers are investigating individual health outcomes through an ecological lens. It is clear that place matters.

The use of geographic information system (GIS) software allows analysis of the relationships between the availability of fast food, neighborhood racial and income composition, nutrient intake, and body mass index (BMI). Additionally, links between the built environment, walking, pedestrian accidents; outdoor alcohol advertisement and youth attitudes about drinking; recreation facilities and physical activity; park acreage, green access, and ethnicity; distribution of transportation dollars, transit access and alternatives to driving, air quality, and asthma; pollution “hot spots,” industrial facility siting and permitting, and health impact assessment (HIA) points to numerous disparities among low-income populations and communities of color (Bullard, Johnson, & Torres, 2011).

Socioeconomic status and race/ethnicity interact in their associations with educational outcomes. This interaction is documented in the rich data on disparities and can be augmented by further study of racial differences in SES trajectories, material hardship, experiences of discrimination, and the impact of these differences on family configuration, marriage rates, family stability, housing, asset accumulation, parental education, neighborhood of residence, and indicators of health outcomes. Household level variables mediated by social support are a critical element in the mix. Loving and nurturing relationships in a household environment provide the context for a child to learn, grow, and thrive. These are typically initiated at birth and the most sustained interactions that a child has early in life. Multiple transactional theories outline how a parent (or caregiver) and child interact with one another over time. In general, if the parent or child has a difficulty that compromises positive interactions, dysfunctional patterns can emerge. Depression and mental health issues are an underlying concern in more than 25% of US households, affecting millions of children/families.

Furthermore, households with few socio-economic resources are frequently situated in disadvantaged neighborhoods with overcrowded and/or questionable educational and child welfare systems, environmental and other toxins and inadequate social safety nets, where negative effects are exacerbated. Social support is a mediating factor in the lives of families. This is a variable with a wide range of outcomes regardless of SES. It is of critical importance as the research points to the centrality and significance of support in the life of every child with positive outcomes. These children have at least one persistent source of support (e.g. a strong family support, mentor, teacher, coach, minister, neighbor) someone who took an active interest in their development, provided guidance and nurturance, and helped to mediate stressful situations. Moreover, the level of social support is also a mitigating factor for adults in their own personal development and in their parenting roles. Parents who are supported are able to be stronger in their own lives and in the lives of their children.

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