Evidence Apparently Against the Hypothesis--论文代写范文精选

51Due论文代写网精选essay代写范文：“Evidence Apparently Against the Hypothesis”  西格曼研究了他人的负面情绪,30个典型自闭症儿童。儿童精神发育迟滞等。自闭症儿童似乎明显不如其他孩子的情感表达。在这篇心理essay代写范文的研究中,孩子们展示了如何使用一个木制玩具。成人(父母或实验者)假装伤害自己，显示面部表情和声音。分析表明,在这种情况下,自闭症儿童似乎更为漠不关心。尽管这项研究似乎支持自闭症儿童的假设，有一个移情赤字,它也可以解释为支持EIH。

自闭症儿童参加的玩具，在痛苦与假设的显示中，年长的自闭症儿童，同情心的衡量得分低于正常儿童。最近的两项研究并不支持EIH出现。下面的essay代写范文进行讲解。

Abstract
Sigman, Kasari, Kwon, and Yirmiya (1992) studied responses to the negative emotions of others by 30 children with classic autism (mean age = 42.4 months). The control participants were 30 nonautistic children with mental retardation and 30 typically developing children with a mental age equivalent to the other children’s. Sigman et al. found that both sets of nonautistic children, unlike the children with autism, were “very attentive to adults showing distress, fear, and discomfort” (p. 804). The children with autism seemed to have significantly less EE than the other children. In one of the experimental conditions in this study, the children were shown how to use a wooden toy and hammer. The adult (a parent or experimenter) pretended to hurt herself and displayed facial and vocal (nonverbal) expressions of distress. （essay代写)

The analysis showed that during the distress displays, the children with autism looked at the toy far more than the other children looked at the toy. Although this study seems to support the hypothesis that children with autism have an EE deficit, it can also be interpreted as supporting the EIH. The fact that the children with autism attended to the toy during the display of distress is consistent with the hypothesis that such children use attentional avoidance to prevent empathic overarousal. Yirmiya et al. (1992) found that older children with high-functioning autism scored lower on a measure of empathy than typically developing children. However, the researchers were surprised by how well the individuals with autism performed. The measure of empathy used in that study included the ability to label one’s own and others’ emotions and was not just a measure of EE sensitivity.

Two recent studies do not appear to support the EIH. Scambler, Hepburn, Rutherford, Wehner, and Rogers (2007) found that young children with autism displayed EE less frequently than other children. This reduced responsiveness could not be explained by a failure to look at the experimenters’ emotional displays. (For example, 19 out of 26 children with autism attended to an episode in which the experimenter banged her thumb, but only 2 of those children responded with observable emotional contagion.) Sigman, Dissanayake, Corona, and Espinosa (2003) found no evidence that a videotape of a crying baby was either arousing or aversive to young children with autism. These studies do not rule out the possibility that people with autism use subtle attentional patterns or covert distractive strategies that limit empathic arousal. It is also conceivable that people with autism sometimes refrain from displaying facial affect in order to restrict EE. Darwin (1872/1965) famously pointed out that “the free expression by outward signs of an emotion intensifies it” but that “the repression, as far as this is possible, of all outward signs softens our emotions” (p. 365).

If people with autism inhabit an intense subjective world, they may spontaneously exploit Darwin’s insight. (The great advantage of the electromyographic research described earlier is that it measures facial changes that usually elude human observation.) Returning to questionnaire research, Baron-Cohen et al. (2004) reported that people with high-functioning autism or Asperger syndrome scored significantly lower on the Empathy Quotient than matched controls. However, most of the items in this questionnaire seem designed to tap CE and indirect EE. Only a small proportion of the items seem likely to tap direct EE. People with low CE ability but high EE sensitivity would probably not score high on this questionnaire. Furthermore, could subtle CE deficits cause adults with autism to misjudge their capacity for empathy when completing the Empathy Quotient? Baron-Cohen and Wheelwright (2004) were confident that any such misjudgment would only cause an overestimate of the person’s true Empathy Quotient score. However, people with EE-dominated empathic imbalance may share others’ emotions unwittingly. In addition, some people who have learned to avoid EE may mistakenly believe that they lack the capacity for EE. There are thus reasons to believe that the Empathy Quotient could underestimate the EE sensitivity of people with autism.（essay代写)

An alternative answer to Whiten’s question (mentioned earlier) is that people with autism are constrained in their social abilities because of executive dysfunction, weak central coherence, or a strong preference for systemizing. Executive function refers to high-level planning, impulse control, and behavioral flexibility. Theorists interested in executive dysfunction thus focus on the stereotypic behaviors, attentional narrowing, and planning problems associated with autism (see Rajendran & Mitchell, 2007). However, I have already suggested that some of these features are explicable in terms of EE-dominated empathic imbalance. In addition, it is not clear to what extent tests of executive function can be tests of the CE-based ability to monitor one’s own mental states (Baron-Cohen, 1995); it has been argued that CE ability underlies executive functioning (Perner & Lang, 2000).

Executive dysfunction is found in a variety of children with developmental delays and may not be a necessary feature of autism (Baron-Cohen, 2003). Central coherence refers to the ability to integrate fragments of information into a meaningful whole (Frith, 1989). Theorists interested in weak central coherence have thus suggested that people with autism attend excessively to local detail and struggle to perceive holistic patterns. However, there is evidence of central coherence in autism (e.g., Caron, Mottron, Berthiaume, & Dawson, 2006; Garner & Hamilton, 2001), and Baron-Cohen (2002, 2003) suggested that systemizing is facilitated by an initial preference for detail-focused processing. It is possible that high systemizing ability in autism can be explained in terms of empathic imbalance: People who find the social world difficult to understand are likely to develop an interest in predictable and controllable systems. Furthermore, attending to the details of systems may facilitate avoidance of EE.（essay代写)

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