Structured Psychosocial Stress and Therapeutic Intervention--论文代写范文精选

后者可能是非常昂贵的,完全无视结构化的心理社会应激的影响,。我们建议,有效地解决人群之间的健康差异,并与当前生物医学思想基于一个简单的遗传决定论,可能对此有益，下面的essay代写范文进行论述。

Abstract 
Using generalized ‘language of thought’ arguments appropriate to interacting cognitive modules, we explore how disease states can interact with medical treatment, including, but not limited to, drug therapy. The feedback between treatment and response creates a kind of idiotypic ‘hall of mirrors’ generating a pattern of ‘efficacy’, ‘treatment failure’, and ‘adverse reactions’ which will, from a Rate Distortion perspective, embody a distorted image of externally-imposed structured psychosocial stress. This analysis, unlike current pharmacogenetics, does not either reify ‘race’ or blame the victim by using genetic structure to place the locus-of-control within a group or individual. Rather, it suggests that a comparatively simple series of questions to identify longitudinal and cross-sectional stressors may provide more effective guidance for specification of individual medical therapy than complicated genotyping strategies of dubious meaning. 

These latter are likely to be both very expensive and utterly blind to the impact of structured psychosocial stress – a euphemism for various forms of racism and ethnic cleansing – which, we contend, is often a principal determinant of treatment outcome at both individual and community levels of organization. We propose, to effectively address ‘health disparities’ between populations, and in contrast to current biomedical ideology based on a simplistic genetic determinism, a richer program of biological medicine reflecting Lewontin’s ‘triple helix’ of genes, environment, and development, a program more in concert with the realities of a basic human biology marked by hypersociality unusual in vertibrates. Aggressive social, economic, and other policies of affirmative action to redress the persisting burdens of history would be an integral component of any such project. 
Key words: adverse drug reactions, Apartheid, chronic disease, comorbidity, drug efficacy, evolution, information theory

Introduction 
According to Burroughs et al. (2002), pharmacogenetic research over the past few decades has uncovered significant differences among racial and ethnic groups in the metabolism, clinical effectiveness, and side-effect profiles of many clinically important drugs, a matter which, they claim, can be attributed to “...genetic factors that underlie varying responses to medicines observed among different genetic and racial groups”.

Depending on mainstream perspective, then, it is ‘genetic polymorphisms’ at either the group or individual level which are responsible for most of the variance in patient response to drug therapy. Currently one of the most discussed examples is the finding that, while 49 percent of white male patients benefited from an angiotensis-converting enzyme inhibitor for heart failure, only 14 percent of African-American males did so (Exner et al., 2001). The point of debate within the biomedical mainstream is not whether this result is a actually attributable to genetic polymorphism or not, but, rather, appears limited to questions regarding the level of organization at which such polymorphism should be investigated, i.e. the racial/ethnic group or the individual. The reader may have noted the scientific mystery implicit in these results: since the distribution of polymorphisms related to drug efficacy appears to greatly overlap between ‘racial’ subgroups precisely as the Nature:genetics editorial commentary states, the three-fold difference in such efficacy between ‘white’ and ‘African-American’ males cannot be entirely, or indeed, even significantly, explained by those polymorphisms.

What is really going on? 
Here we raise a larger and far more fundamental locus-of-control question about therapeutic efficacy and adverse reactions to therapy, including, but not limited to, drugs. That locus of control is the embedding pattern of structured psychosocial stress exemplified by figure 1, which redisplays material from Singh-Manoux (2003). It shows, for men and women separately, self-reported health as a function of self-reported status rank, where 1 is high and 10 low rank, among some 7000 male and 3400 female London-based of- fice staff, aged 35-55 working in 20 Civil Service departments during the late 1990’s. Self-reported health is a highly significant predictor of future morbidity and mortality. 

The results for both sexes are virtually indistinguishable in what is a kind of toxicological dose-response curve, showing physiological response against a ‘dosage’ of hierarchy that may include both measures of highly structured stress and real availability of resources (Link and Phelan, 2000). Note that low status staff approach the critical ‘ED 50’ stage at which half the population shows impact from the dosage. Within the US, the analog to figure 1 involves the aftermath of a slave economy that persisted into the middle 19th Century and smoothly evolved into the current, and newly-resurgent, system of American Apartheid (e.g. Massey and Denton, 1993). That latter is inextricably convoluted with a ‘market economy’ which, particularly in the aftermath of deindustrialization driven by the diversion of essential resources into the Cold War (e.g. Wallace et al., 1999), gives few rights, little stability, and sharply declining real resources for the vast majority of its participants. In addition, deliberate policies of ethnic cleansing ranging from ‘urban renewal’ to ‘planned shrinkage’ have left virtually all urban African-American neighborhoods looking like Dresden after the firebombing (e.g. Wallace and Wallace, 1998), with the inevitable individual and community-scale horrors consequent on such acts.

It is little wonder that African-American males do not respond well to certain classes of drugs. We will use a mathematical modeling strategy to investigate more precisely how structured psychosocial stress, like that of figure 1, might insinuate itself into physiological response to medical therapy, including but not limited to drug efficacy and adverse drug reactions. The results of this exercise suggest that questions regarding cross sectional and longitudinal structured stress at the individual level might, in the vast majority of cases, provide more useful information in designing and monitoring medical interventions, including drug therapies, than individualized genetic profiles. This conclusion is, however, modulated by the inescapably irreducible consequences of such stress, a matter to which we will repeatedly return. To do this we examine mind/body interaction as a composite structure of within-individual ‘cognitive modules’ enmeshed with an immediate ‘sociocultural network’, all embedded in a larger context of structured psychosocial stress. We thus implicitly embrace ‘comorbidity’ between chronic mental and physical disorder, and examine therapeutic intervention in such a structure. This is no small matter, and leads to use of cutting-edge methods, including information dynamics techniques.

We adapt recent advances in understanding ‘punctuated equilibrium’ in evolutionary process (e.g. Wallace, 2002b; Wallace and Wallace, 1998, 1999) to the question of how embedding structured psychosocial stress affects the interaction of ‘mind’, ‘body’, and medical intervention. We specifically seek to determine how the synergism of stress, cognitive submodules, and therapeutic intervention, might be constrained by certain of the asymptotic limit 4 theorems of probability. We know that, regardless of the probability distribution of a particular stochastic variate, the Central Limit Theorem ensures that long sums of independent realizations of that variate will follow a Normal distribution. Analogous constraints exist on the behavior of information sources – both independent and interacting – and these are described by the limit theorems of information theory. Imposition of phase transition formalism from statistical physics, in the spirit of the Large Deviations Program of applied probability, permits concise and unified description of evolutionary and cognitive ‘learning plateaus’ which, in the evolutionary case, are interpreted as evolutionary punctuation (e.g. Wallace, 2002a, b). This approach provides a ‘natural’ means of exploring punctuated processes in the effects of structured stress on mind-body interaction in the context of therapeutic intervention.（essay代写)

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