The factors that influenced British medicine in the 19th century

下面为大家整理一篇优秀的essay代写范文- The factors that influenced British medicine in the 19th century，供大家参考学习，这篇论文讨论了影响19世纪英国医疗行业的因素。在19世纪，英国各学科专业知识的迅猛发展，带动了医学知识的发展，同时也促进了医疗行业的专业化。各种医疗社团的建立和医学期刊的创立，有助于专业知识的传播和营造良好的行业氛围和积极的行业文化，这是促进19世纪英国医疗行业专业化的重要动因。

Medicine is a kind of science aiming at the treatment and prevention of physiological diseases and the improvement of human physiological body health. For example, knowledge of chemistry, bacteriology, anatomy and disinfection is often applied in the medical industry to treat diseases and promote health. Interdisciplinary integration is a feature of modern medicine, and the rapid development of professional knowledge of various disciplines in Britain in the 19th century led to the development of medical knowledge and the professionalization of the medical industry.

There is a close relationship between chemistry and medicine, and the development of chemical knowledge plays an important role in the development of medical knowledge. Human beings and nature have the same chemical elements, and the human body is a complex chemical reaction system. All kinds of chemical reactions are going on all the time, but these reactions are more complex, more effective and more accurate than those in vitro. To some extent, the basic knowledge of chemistry in the 19th century was the basic requirement of becoming a practitioner, because at that time, many doctors made up their own medicine for their patients. Here's a good example of what chemistry has done to medicine: Joseph Priestley synthesized nitrous oxide in his laboratory in 1772, and British doctor Humphry Davy used it for surgery in 1800 to remove pain from the body. After 1846, ether and chloroform were used in medicine as analgesics. These drugs are laboratory chemicals, simple in composition, widely used in the medical industry, and once proven medically valuable, they are fine-tuned and carefully examined to determine their therapeutic properties. Disinfection method for surgery is very important, can significantly reduce the surgical mortality, but disinfection method in process, has been widely accepted by the medical profession, has encountered unprecedented difficulties, until the middle of the nineteenth century, the medical profession to the infectious disease is still no understanding, many doctors don't realize the necessity of disinfection, at a time when a surgeon for patients during the operation, put on the bloody gown, should not be regarded as not health, instead, let a person feel the doctor has rich experience in surgery. The real founder of surgical disinfection was surgeon Joseph Lister, who created a new set of disinfectants, and by spraying carbonic acid into the air in the operating room, there was a dramatic decrease in postoperative mortality. From 1861 to 1865, the postoperative mortality rate in male emergency wards was 45%, which was reduced to 15% by 1889. Liszt published his findings in The lancet on March 16, 1867. Since then, surgical disinfection has been constantly improved in practice and gradually become an effective and safe treatment. In 1886, Germany's bergman first used hot steam to sterilize surgical instruments. In the United States, hastert invented rubber surgical gloves in 1890, thereby eliminating the most important source of infection in surgery. The carbonic acid that lister USES before has stimulative, corrosive action to human body, and toxicity is quite big, not be ideal disinfectant, accordingly also be replaced by 75% alcohol, this series of gradual improvement, improvement forms modern disinfection method eventually.

Code of Professional Ethics refers to the different tasks, objects of duties, means of work, conditions of activities and responsibilities of various trades and professions, so as to form their own unique moral consciousness, custom tradition and Code of conduct. Therefore, code of medical ethics is a code of conduct regulating the relationship between medical practitioners, patients and their counterparts. It is a special performance of general social morality in the field of medical and health care, which mainly adjusts the relationship between medical staff and patients, medical staff and the society. Throughout the 19th century, the problem of medical ethics in Britain mainly lies in the constant conflicts among the practitioners of the industry. All kinds of peer disputes over the treatment methods and different opinions on the standards of the industry are prevalent throughout the industry, and sometimes even develop into antagonism, fighting and even mutual jealousy. In the face of such a situation, the establishment of professional ethics is particularly necessary. In the 19th century, various medical societies were established one after another to standardize and unify the medical treatment methods and codes of conduct of practitioners, which greatly alleviated the contradiction between peers. As one historian puts it, "the development of norms of medical ethics in this era, aimed primarily at practitioners rather than between doctors and patients, has eased tensions among medical professionals."

In the 19th century, the expansion of the medical market led to the decline of the sponsorship system, and the client group of doctors was no longer a few aristocrats or rich people, but a large number of middle class with similar status and wealth status. Out of competition, conflicts and disputes between peers are exposed. The following example illustrates the fierce competition between medical industry peers at that time:

At the time, pharmacy and clinic jobs were hotly contested, and competitors sought executive support in various ways -- soliciting, promoting, even buying votes. In 1814, the Leeds mercury reported that when huddersfield pharmacy opened in 1814, the competition for the position of surgeon was fierce. Wilkins received 209 votes, Robinson 174 votes, bradshaw 163 votes and horton 161 votes. Wilkins won and became chief surgeon, with Robinson second. Before he was appointed, Mr Wilkins had travelled to Edinburgh to pass the Royal College of Surgeons exam, which would have prevented him from obtaining qualifications. This fierce competition not only strengthens the professional level of doctors, but also accelerates the survival of the fittest in the medical industry, which to some extent accelerates the professional process of the medical industry. But in addition to the fierce competition based on the business itself, the medical industry at that time was full of antagonism, and some were even full of useless fights. For example, in 1860, the journal Wakefield and halifax revealed the debate between two practitioners:

Dr.Clough and Mr. MRCS, who spoke on the condition of anonymity, wrote to each other from a newspaper, accusing each other. At the heart of the dispute was whether Clough was qualified to use the title "doctor" for weeks. MRCS notes that although Mr. Kraff is Physicians' Licentiate from the Royal College of Physicians, the certificate is not sufficient for the 'doctor' title and only graduates from accredited universities are eligible. Krogh replied that MRCS was jealous because he found my legal credentials were now ahead of his.

Such disputes, which are full of confrontation, hostility and jealousy, not only have a negative impact on the industry practitioners themselves, but also the development of the whole industry, and have damaged the social credibility of the industry. At this time, the emergence of medical ethics associations is particularly important to deal with disputes, establish codes of ethics and codes of conduct in the industry, and establish a unified settlement procedure. From the mid-19th century, the medical industry began to pay more attention to the issue of medical ethics. In this era, the norms of medical ethics were mainly aimed at practitioners rather than between doctors and patients, and the development of such norms eased the tension between peers. While adjusting the contradiction of practitioners reasonably, medical groups have also standardized the means of diagnosis and treatment and the code of conduct of practitioners.

The group has been dominated by industry elites and is strongly supported by the local medical industry, so it has been able to formulate the strictest regulations to regulate the behavior of practitioners.

Maintain proper codes of conduct for the whole industry, safeguard the interests of the industry, and promote mutual benefit and mutual assistance among employees. The existence of such associations is undoubtedly conducive to the development of medical industry practitioners in this region. On the one hand, they consolidate the interests of each other; on the other hand, they also reduce the complaints about improper behaviors in the medical industry. While standardizing the industrial order, they accelerate the professionalization process of the medical industry.

In the 19th century in the rise of the British medical industry related professional organizations can be divided into two categories, one kind is the medical community, such is the nature of the professional organization of industry peers association of professional autonomy, establish practitioners code of conduct as the standardization and unity, at the same time, to some extent speeds up the health care industry specialization process; The other category is medical journals, whose establishment promotes the dissemination of medical knowledge, the professional level of practitioners and the specialization of the medical industry.

In the 18th century, there were medical book societies, social societies and medical societies in London and some big cities. These societies were devoted to the dissemination of academic knowledge, the use of medical devices, and the exchange of professionals. In the 19th century, as opposed to those based in large cities in the 18th century, they were free from geographical restrictions, and many local societies succeeded through their own efforts. One of the most famous examples is the Provincial Medical and Surgical Association, which was founded in Wercester in 1832. This Association gradually grew into the British Medical Association. Huddersfield Medical Society, founded in 1825, was founded by surgeons in the town. It mainly discussed Medical problems and Medical expenses, and set different charging standards based on patients' property status, visiting time and distance from the town. Founded in 1854 in the Microscopic Society in Wakefield is committed to the use of the microscope popularization and research and development, for use in physiology and medicine. The unprecedented development of medical associations has created a professional atmosphere for the whole industry, broadened the medical knowledge of practitioners, accelerated the exchange of experience among practitioners, and at the same time promoted the professional process of the medical industry. In addition, the number of medical journals increased in the 19th century, which greatly encouraged the enthusiasm of medical practitioners in scientific research and exploration and provided a good platform for them to publish new medical discoveries. For example, p.brady, a doctor in huddersfield from 1840 to 1850, wrote a series of articles on blood circulation, cholera treatment and education system in the Medical industry, published in the Medical Times. Among The medical journals, The most famous one is The Lancet founded by Thomas wakley in 1823. He wrote in his opening words: "The Lancet is both a window into medicine and a knife to cure people." Over the past 100 years, the journal has published a series of sensational articles, making it the oldest and most valued peer-reviewed medical journal in Britain and even the world. The establishment of various medical associations and medical journals is conducive to the dissemination of professional knowledge and the creation of a good industry atmosphere and positive industry culture, which is an important motivation to promote the professionalization of the British medical industry in the 19th century.

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