Teaching in small classes is indeed different--Paper代写范文

Paper代写范文:“Teaching in small classes is indeed different”，这篇论文主要描述的是对班级的规模大小是否会影响教学质量的不同进行了调查和研究，本文认为班级的规模直接影响着教学的质量，小规模的教育模式能够让教师关注到每一位学生的成长，能够有着更多的时间来思考如何实现教学效率的提高。

The possible correlation between class size and the quality of education is ‘probably the most written about, but least researched, topic in educational research’ (Wilson, 2002). Policy-makers are expected to base their decisions on reliable evidence. The results of various research projects into the influence of class size on the quality of education (with an emphasis on pupil achievement) are confusing, even contradictory. A literary review that identifies trends from the ‘best evidence’ in research is justified on these grounds.

范围---Scope

Myriad publications on the theme of class size and quality of education were accessed; the limit was literature published during the past 20 years (with exceptions, such as, Glass and Smith (1978) ‘which is of enduring significance’)in the UK and abroad. Most of the research was conducted in America and was state-funded.

背景---Context

Parents and teachers tend to believe that class size is a significant factor in the quality of education experienced by the child. The Government and Ofsted insist that there is no correlation between achievement and class size. The subject is controversial and it polarises researchers.

目标---Aims

The aim was to provide an overview of widely differing studies on class size, student achievement and related pedagogical issues leading to the identification of the‘optimum class size for various purposes’. Lastly, ‘can the findings be applied to Scottish education?’ (Wilson, 2002)

方法论---Methodology

A key word search (e.g. ‘teacher-pupil’ or ‘student-ratio’) was used to search seven databases, and despite excluding Government policy documents and references in newspapers and journals, more than a thousand items were identified. The evidence was examined regarding class size and pupil achievement, and groups most likely to benefit from smaller classes.

研究结果和结论的重要点---Significant Points in Research Results and Conclusion

a) 依据性质---Nature of the Evidence:

Of the four categories of evidence available (literature reviews, correlational studies, meta-analysis and experimental designs) findings from experimental design studies were ‘accorded higher credibility’ than from the other three types. The majority of studies relied on a narrow set of tests to measure pupils’ progress. The link between class size, pupil achievement and classroom practice or teaching styles has not been directly addressed and is treated as a minor issue within class size research.

b)班级规模和学生素养 Class Size and Pupil Attainment:

The Tennessee STAR project (implemented 1985) was a significant experimental study involving approximately 7000 children in 79 schools. In both reading and mathematics pupils in small classes (13-17 pupils) performed better than pupils in the larger classes (with or without a teacher aide). By the 1990s similar (mainly publicly funded) class manipulation projects were underway in the US and in Canada yielding similar results.

There is little reliable British evidence; according to this literature review Mortimer (1988) showed that pupil attainment increased as class size increased up to around 25 pupils and in the 30 to 40 pupil range, but decreased between 25 and 30. Massey (1997) and Ofsted (1995) results also showed results increased as class sizes rose to between 28 and 35. However, Ofsted found a significant rise in pupil attainment at Key Stage 1 in smaller classes.

英国学校结果相关性---The relevance of results for British schools:

Researchers at the London University Institute of Education reanalysed STAR data (Blatchford & Mortimer, 1994; Goldstein & Blatchford, 1997) and conducted their own class size project (in Britain). Their reanalysis confirms the STAR results that the children who most benefit from small class sizes are the very young and those from ethnic minorities. When they conducted their own observational research at the London Institute of Education (Blatchford et al, 2002), a strong association was found between class size and pupils’ attainment on standardised tests:

- the effect of the reduction in class size depends on the actual class size itself.

- class size-attainment relation is influenced by pupils’ skills and experience on entry to the school system; their social background, gender (e.g. boys benefited less than girls from smaller classes) and ethnic identity (black children benefit more than white children); age at which they experience the reduced class size

- results are partially determined by nature of testing, e.g. whether cognitive and/or affective attributes are assessed

- low achievers benefit most from being taught in small classes ‘with increasing reductions in their expected achievement up to a class size of 30’

c) 班级规模和教学实践---Class Size and Teaching Practices:

有效的小班教学优势---Advantages of effective small-class teaching

- more time to give praise and recognition to individuals and more detailed knowledge of individual learners

- more ‘individualisation of learning’ (benefiting disadvantaged pupils, low achievers and ‘shy’ pupils)

- more (and quicker) feedback on work and more high order questioning

- less time spent on routine supervision, classroom control and management

Many teachers engaged in teaching small classes have not been trained to do so effectively and are using the same methods they use in larger classes, therefore the benefits are being lost. This has an impact on research findings regarding the benefits of smaller class sizes. Teachers need to be trained to effectively teach classes of various sizes.

d) 班级规模和学生行为和动力Class Size and Pupil Behaviour and Motivation

There is little evidence relating to class size and pupil behaviour and what there is tends to be based on stakeholders’ (teachers, headteachers, governors, parents) perceptions ‘which lack the reliability of experimental and observational data’. (See Bennett, 1994, 1996; Pate-Bain & Achilles, 1986; Pate-Bain et al, 1992; Boyd-Zaharias et al, 1997; Glass and Smith, 1978).

Overall findings:

pupil misbehaviour is more likely in larger classes.

- small classes were quieter with fewer student interruptions

- students in smaller classes were more positive towards each other and were more willing to interact and participate. Perhaps an effect of enhanced self-esteem (also associated with small classes)

- smaller class sizes in formative years are associated with fewer suspensions and absences in secondary school (or its equivalent in the US)

文学回顾评价---Assessment of Literature Review:

The scope, context, justification and methodology of the literature review are well matched. Overall, the review is comprehensive, informative and clear. However, the main conclusion that there is sufficient evidence from the US studies to show that smaller class size does positively affect student achievement is not very well supported by the research for the following reasons: there are significant areas of ambiguity and conflicting results that seem to be brushed aside in the review. 1. Class size (standard, standard with aide, and smaller) these descriptions are not uniformly applied. There was some reference to class sizes of 35 – 40 pupils (without clearly stating whether that was the class roll, or the teaching unit, or the average for the school, or the exception) and yet most of the studies used class sizes of 25 as standard. If we are to use the conclusions of this review it is not clear what ‘smaller’ means: 15, 20, 25? There is an enormous difference between 15 and 25, but if the majority of teachers are having to cope at any one time with 40 pupils in one room, the only research that relates to their situation suggests that their pupil achievements will be high. This is counter-intuitive and is not a conclusion that would be accepted by parents or teachers.

There are various factors that can have a distorting influence on results: the relation between class size, sets and streaming (high achieving pupils deliberately assigned to larger classes); pupil, parent and teacher expectations (related to streaming); the wider educational environment and its effects on pupils. Since these were not (or could not) be accounted for in the literature review, the overall results and conclusion are less reliable

One of the aims of the research was to ascertain if the results were relevant to the Scottish system. Since there is little or no evidence emanating from Scotland and very little from Britain, it is unlikely that the findings can be used to inform Scottish education policy.

Lastly, reference was made to papers or books that did not feature in the author’s List of References, e.g. Mortimer (1988)

Summary and Review of ‘The Effects of Synthetic Phonics Teaching on Reading and Spelling Attainment’

研究理由---Justifications for research

In an earlier study the authors had detected a link between a supplementary synthetic phonic programme and improvements in literacy. This research is the logical next step and is justified.

范围---Scope

A seven year longitudinal study involving 300 pupils in primary schools in various socio-economic environments. This is appropriate given the aims and methodology as it allows the researchers to measure progress over time. However, a further study involving a larger sample of schools would be useful.

定义---Definitions

Analytic phonics – students taught to recognise letter sounds and relations between phonemes and phonic spelling patterns after formal introduction to reading (and therefore whole words). The teacher first models the pronunciation of each word, then the letter sound patterns are emphasised.

Synthetic phonics – students taught phoneme recognition before learning to read whole text. This method moves on to blending of letters (e.g. CVC) very quickly, but without pronunciation modelling by the teacher. Typically students manipulate the letters and work out the synthesised sound for themselves. (See Adams, 1990)

背景---Context

The wider context of this study is the debate about how best to teach children how to read. The phonic method of learning to read has been around for centuries (Morris, 1984) and the analytic phonic method was common in British schools, but fell into disfavour as pedagogical practices changed (for example, the move towards more student-centred learning). This led to a temporary rejection of phonic teaching methods. Phonic methods are now being considered again as appropriate. Hence, the debate is not so much whether to teach phonics, but which method of phonics teaching should be developed in British schools. In this case the research ‘problem’ is relevant and appropriate.

目标---Aims

The overall aim was to see if the apparent advantages of the synthetic system found in the authors’ previous study could be confirmed and developed. The objective was to design and conduct a comparative study of the effect of different phonic teaching methods on literacy attainment and language development throughout the primary years.

方法论---Methodology

This was a seven-year longitudinal study with elements of experimental design (manipulation of groups) and correlational analyses of data. Data collected includes: (apart from the obvious details such as age and gender) pupil socio-economic background, pupil skills on entry to primary school, parent and child attitudes to reading (and learning) and previous experiences of learning (including attendance at nursery, etc), and test scores in language skills over 7 years. Some of this data was presented through parent, pupil or teacher questionnaires. The ‘deprivation index’ was also used.

Starting with Primary 1 students, one group used synthetic phonics programme, a second group used analytic phonics and the third used standard analytic phonics with an element of intensive ‘phonemic awareness’ training. At the end of 16 weeks the groups were tested and the results were compared. The analytic phonics groups were then exposed to the synthetic phonics programme (until the end of Primary 1). The same pupils were tracked through Primary 2 to Primary 7 (to test for long-term effects gained from Primary 1 exposure to synthetic phonics).

Girls and boys’ performances and attitudes to reading were compared. Some correlational analyses of pupil (and parent) attitudes to books and to reading and learning (gathered through direct questioning of pupils and through questionnaires) and performance were carried out.

Advantaged and disadvantaged pupils’ performances were compared. However, no control groups relating to socio-economic background were set up. There was an attempt to divide pupils from various social backgrounds equally among the three groupings (synthetic, analytic, analytic with extra training), but this was not possible. So, it was decided to expose the group with the most disadvantaged backgrounds to the synthetic phonic programme at the beginning of Primary 1. Bearing in mind the accepted historical link between socio-economic disadvantage and poor literacy, this makes the study more rigorous and the results more reliable.

Questionnaires were sent out to participating schools for teachers to comment on what they observed regarding the effectiveness of the synthetic phonics programme.

A case study was conducted in relation to pupil underachievement (being more than two years behind in performance) within the sample. The pupil chosen for the case study was an atypical pupil because he had been kept behind a year due to language acquisition difficulties. In addition to the phonic comparison project, this pupil also received tailored support and follow-up training; his progress was monitored.

研究结果重要性---Significant Points in Research Results

At the end of 16 weeks the synthetic phonics group were more advanced than the other two groups (around seven months ahead) in spelling and reading; they were also better able to identify phonemes than the group that had undergone specific phoneme recognition training. This early advantage continued to benefit the original synthetic phonic group through Primary 2 (and for word reading and spelling this advantage increased through to Primary 7, but for reading comprehension the advantage dropped from seven months ahead to three and a half months (ahead of chronological age); some of the analytic phonics groups needed extra help in Primary 2; none of the synthetic phonics group needed extra help.

Girls benefited most from the early introduction to synthetic phonics. Tests in Primary 2 suggested that early or late exposure to the programme made no difference to boys’ abilities. However, in Primary 3, the boys began to outperform the girls in word reading and spelling and this trend continued through to Primary 7. This is despite the girls’ reporting more positive attitudes to reading.

Correlational analyses found that those pupils with more positive attitudes to reading generally performed better in tests. Feedback from teachers and headteachers at the end of the seven-year study was positive: pupils were more motivated and more confident; teachers reported raised expectations, and found that language development difficulties could be detected earlier. Socio-economic differences between pupils did impact on performance in reading and spelling, but this was only apparent in Primary 7 (and to some degree in Primary 5). Socio-economic differences did not correlate with positive or negative attitudes to reading or learning in general in this sample.

The case study pupil was an atypical case because he had been kept back a year before entering Primary 1, so his performance was compared both to the class average and to chronological age expectation. He was part of the original ‘analytic plus training’ group. His performance lagged behind throughout Primary 3 – 7, but he did make significant progress by Primary 7 in relation to his skills in Primary 1.

作者评论重要性---Significant Points in Authors’ Conclusions

All pupils can benefit from a synthetic phonics programme as part of the reading curriculum. Girls benefit most from an early introduction to synthetic phonics; the method should start early in Primary 1. Where most studies find that girls outperform boys in language development (Mullis et al, 2003), this study contradicted that trend as boys performed as well as, even better than, the girls.

The sample may not be nationally representative. So, results, especially of correlational studies may not be appropriate for making nationally significant generalisations. Results from correlational studies also could not to be used as evidence of causation regarding pupil background and attitudes on the one hand and pupil performance on the other.

Many of the pupils in the sample were from disadvantaged backgrounds. Therefore the overall benefits from using the synthetic phonics programme could be even greater. The authors suggest that socio-economic differences would probably impact sooner than Primary 7 without the early influence of synthetic phonics teaching, although a further study using a control group would be needed to confirm this. One reason why the socio-economic differences impact at Primary 7 may be because that is the age that pupils begin to read more independently; therefore, availability of reading material (and so on) becomes a factor in reading habits. The case study shows that pupils with significant difficulties in the area of language development can make great progress in primary years through effective teaching and tailor-made support.

The authors of the study suggest that the reason why pupil performance continues to improve is because the synthetic phonics programme teaches them a method, ‘a technique they can use for themselves’

研究的总结和评价---Concluding Assessment of the Study

This study was well planned, appropriately sized and relevant to context (the debate over literacy teaching). The results were clearly set-out and the researchers’ conclusions match the findings very well (given that not having control groups and not accounting for the socio-economic variables were pointed out by the researchers themselves, there is not need to detail these weaknesses further.) Lastly, the case study was so atypical in being held back a year before entering primary school that it would have been more useful if other significant, but more representative, case studies were undertaken.

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