Emergency management of tourism--paper代写范文

51Due论文代写平台paper代写范文:“Emergency management of tourism”，这篇论文主要描述的随着全球经济的发展，旅游行业也得到了迅速的发展，在旅游行业的发展过程中遇到了一个问题，那就是如何对旅游中所出现的突发情况进行有效及时的管理，这不仅需要分析旅游中可能出现哪些的突发情况，更要对这些情况进行分类和、规划后才能有效的预防。

The following report outlines the main concepts and principles of emergency management by defining, explaining and discussing topics related to emergency management and providing examples of these with real life situations. The report provides an overview of a wide range of emergency management situations and processes, and provides an insight into how important emergency management is, in so many different settings.

There are many different classifications of emergency events, after reading this paper, you should have an understanding of the different classifications of emergency scenarios, understand their impact and see the extent to which emergency services go to prevent, prepare, respond and recover from them, through an integration of management, planning, legislation and community support.

2.0 What Are Emergencies/ Disasters

Due to the differing nature of context, conditions and circumstances, this subject has shown that the following states of emergency and disaster are widely defined, with vastly diverse wording but similar meaning.

2.1 Accident

An accident can be broadly defined as, an unfortunate event that occurs unexpectedly and unintentionally, generally by chance (Oxford, 2010). From an emergency management perspective however, an accident is often considered in numerical terms, in relation directly to casualty numbers. An accident is conceptually categorised as having a death toll or casualty list of between 1 and 1000 (Manock, 2009). This said however, accidents should not only be categorised by casualty numbers, with their impact having a wide ranging effect and devastation, such as economic impact, affect on the community and international ramifications.The Chernobyl nuclear reactor disaster in Ukraine in 1986 is a good example to illustrate the above connotations of an accident. There were only 56 direct deaths; however the ongoing impact on the community has seen over 330,000 people re-settled and evacuated, 800,000 members of the community suffer radiation exposure and there have been 4000 directly related cancer deaths and an expected 100,000 more in the future. All of which has had an enormous economical impact due to the vacating of so much land, health and loss of international trade (IAEA).

2.2 Emergency

An emergency can be defined as, an unexpected event which places life and/or property in threat and requires a direct reaction through the utilisation of community resources and actions. The most important factors in evaluating the nature and meaning of an emergency is to take note of the sudden and un-prepared nature requiring the establishment of emergency cohesiveness and action. In the context of this subject, two perspectives have been established for attempting to better define and understand what an emergency is. Those two perspectives are; the perspective of emergency services and a sociological perspective.

An emergency from an emergency services perspective refers to a severe and significant interference directly effecting the population of a community which endangers or causes loss and/or damage and destruction to property which is far greater than the normal capacity of the specific emergency services and which requires unique mobilisation and establishment of resources other than those generally on hand to those emergency departments (Manock, 2009).

From a sociological perspective, an emergency is simply the dicrepancy in relationship to a severe and acute event and vulnerabilty of those effected.

The 2009 Black Saturday fires were an example of an emergency. There was up to as many as 400 individual fires on the 7th of Febuary 2009, caused by a number of serious issues such as arson, lighting and power lines. The extreme conditions and wind speeds quickly made the Black Saturday fires an emergency, with an Australia wide contingent and formation of emergency services made available and desperately needed, community resources and emergency services were pushed to their limit.

2.3 Disaster

A disaster is a sudden disastrous emergency incident, of natural or manmade origin, bringing immense damage, loss or devastation (Oxford, 2010). A disaster often requires the joint effort of more than one community and/or state emergency service effort, as a disaster is generally beyond the coping capability of the community of which it effects and requires multiple emergency service modes.

The Haiti earthquake this year, 2010, is an example of a natural disaster. It was rated as a 7.0 on the richter scale and caused damage of catastrophic proportions, killing as many as a confirmed number 150,000 and leaving iver 400,000 members of the community and surrounding area homeless (Melia, 2009).

A man-made disaster, such as the act of arson in the lighting of huge fires in California in 2007 where a huge 18 seperate fires killed up to 10 people and forced atleast half a million members of the community into homlessness (Lemonick, 2008) or the Attacks on the World Trade Center in 2001 by terrorists are just as prolific and damaging as those made naturally. Global warming it may be said is a combination of the two, the disasters which are caused by rising sea levels and global temperatures have been for many years growing and becoming more sudden and disastrous, placing more members of the global comunity, more often, in need of unexpected emergency services.

2.4 Catastrophe

A catastrophe is an incident that affects the members of a community/society, or threatens to effect, resulting in losses of life and/or property and places the entire community at risk and unexpected, exceptional resources and skills are necessary, some of which may be required to be sought from other nations.

As the definition implies, a catastropheis a disaster which affects a society in huge terms, on all faces. For example, the Earthquake in Haiti on the 12th of January had catastrophic affects and was the result of a catastrophic strength, 7.0 on the Richter scale, impact. The death toll and homeless rate as a direct result is well into the hundreds of thousands, and the emergency service and resources of the community were completely exhausted and the aid of the United Nations and some 20 international communities have been sought, offering food, aid, resources and military security (Dreazen, 2010).

2.5 Calamity

A calamity refers to an event causing great and sudden damage or distress (Oxford, 2010).It has many of the same connotations as a disaster and a catastrophe.

2.6 Hazards

A hazard refers to the possibility that an event or physical condition could be in the short-term or long-term, the source of harm to people, property, infrastructure and so forth (FEMA, 1997). There are two broad groups which hazards can be broken into; they are, man-made and natural. A man made hazard is an emergency or disaster which has been caused by a man-man hazard, such as the environmental disaster caused by the ocean liner the Pacific Adventurer which caused widespread damage to Moreton Island in 2009. A dormant volcano however would be an example of a natural hazard, one which must be monitored and recorded.

2.7 Risk

The likelihood and harshness of harmful and unfavourable effects that are a direct consequence of exposure to a hazard is known as a risk. The susceptibility and resilience of a community is also an important feature of risk. Susceptibility refers to the probability or likelihood of an emergency situation arising in a particular setting, while resilience refers to that settings ability to fight the emergency and recover effectively. For Instance, an area such as Marysville in Victoria is a highly dense area of bush and scrub and therefore is more susceptible to the risk of bushfire, however its resilience due to new PPRR and emergency planning joint strategies since the Black Saturday fires, make it an area which should have a high level of resilience.

3.0 The Effects of Emergencies and Why Emergency Management

3.1 Effects on people

The most obvious effects of emergencies to people are those that are physical. This includes things such as injury and death. While these are the most serious of the effects on people they are not the most common, as many people are left to pick up the pieces and deal with post-emergency events, often manifesting themselves in behavioural issues which can stay with a person forever. Behavioural effects can be attributed to a person losing a friend or family member or anyone who is close to them and plays a part in their life. Relocation due to homelessness and unemployment can also result from an emergency, where their livelihood is destroyed or damaged, leaving them to wondering how they will support themselves, a family, pay bills and so forth, often resulting in depression and other behavioural side effects. The loss of household and personal possessions is common and in many cases can be irreplaceable. The stress and trauma related to having things taken away from you and/or damaged, person or possession, can cause post traumatic stress which may stay with some people for life.

3.2 Community structure and effects on communities

Community norms and the ways of life within them are created during times of structure and normality. Friendships are created, rules are formed and a level of comfort is produced which shapes the way a community operates and survives. During a time of emergency, this social normality is interrupted, and often the result is permanent. The loss of people within a community can have an effect on relationships and structures, while damage to property and the environment can force a completely new way of life to be created, using what is left or sourcing new opportunities. The economy, infrastructure, people and environment make up the physical aspect of a community, its spirit is what binds it. Any loss or damage through trauma or effects of an emergency has the ability to both negatively and positively affect the community, bringing it closer together or pushing it further away.

3.3 Effects on property, environment, infrastructure, economy

The effects of particular emergency situations vary, for instance a flood effects property, environment, infrastructure and the economy in different ways to a fire, but not necessarily in any less harsh terms. All of these are vulnerable to destruction and loss, however unlike human life, they can be replaced.

3.4 Why emergency management

Particular emergency events require particular emergency management and planning, there is not an infinite number or type of emergency situations. It is for this reason that certain emergency planning can be directed to particular events. By creating and having set in place an emergency management system, and contingency plan for specific situations, it is possible to mitigate and prevent, learn from and recover after and during all emergency situations.

4.0 Framework for Emergency Management

4.1 Management functions

There are 4 crucial management functions that all emergency managers are expected to exhibit. These are:

1. Planning

Planning can be for short-term or long-term goals. It involves the foundation of successfully achieving goals, and is the most fundamental and important management function. Planning involves developing and forecasting what is required to occur sometime in the future and subsequently creating action plans to facilitate this.

2. Organising

Organising requires the most effective and efficient use of business resources to ensure that the plans and goals of the business can be met. The co-ordination of the human resources, financial resources and other intellectual property is an integral part of reaching managerial efficiency and attaining the greatest level of success.

3. Leading

Leading is the most effective and important way of creating motivation and desire at all levels, and should always be done from the top down. The manager is the leader, and this requires leading by example, showing enthusiasm, setting an example, and showing people how and what needs to be done in all settings.

4. Controlling

The planning, organising and leading functions of management, whilst being integral to managerial and business success, do not always work successfully first time, every time. It is for this reason that controlling and monitoring at all levels is critical. Without the function of control, it is very hard to gauge the success of short-term and long-term plans and business activities can become shaky and off-beat very quickly. By successfully controlling and monitoring all of the business functions, any need for change or diversification can be made quickly and efficiently allowing the manager to meet all goals on time. Without control, a manager has no knowledge of what is happening around them (Bateman, 1990).

4.2 EM functions

The planning, leading, organising and controlling functions undertaken for an emergency manager are unique to this field, and relate to the management of these functions in relation to emergency prevention, preparedness, response and recovery. A current and suited example to illustrate this is the Living with fire joint agency initiative which sets out the management strategies and action plans which facilitates the successful use of the PPRR functions.

Prevention refers directly to the measures which are set in place and are designed to help avoid an emergency from occurring, or at the least buffer its affect. The living with fire initiative offers community programs and campaigns that teach the community about fire prevention procedures such as clearing and back-burning.

Preparedness refers to the ability to be actively equipped and organised to deal with an emergency, if one should arise. Once again, the Living with fire initiative focuses on preparedness by delivering frequent community preparedness meetings and having specially trained facilitators on hand to assist in the development of bushfire survival strategies.

Response to an emergency situation can be in the form of help during or after the event has occurred to those members of the community affected and reduce the impact of the emergency on society with a goal or eradicating the risk posed. The Living with fire initiative through its preventative and preparedness plans and media campaigns attempts to create a situation whereby everyone, from those directly affected to those giving aid, understand their role in the response (CFA, 2010).

Recovery can refer to the physical, monetary and mental recovery of those people and areas affected by an emergency. For example, the recovery effort following the Black Saturday Fires which devastated large areas of Victoria in 2009, was exemplary and through the creation of the Victorian Bushfire appeal, raised more than $378 million, paving the way for goods, services and personal to help in the successful recovery process (Red-Cross, 2009).

4.3 Linkage of 8 functions into EM framework

The 8 functions; planning, organising, leading and controlling; prevention, preparedness, response and recovery should all be integrated to form a structure whereby all elements work together to form the emergency management framework. The four managerial functions of POLC are used to create and develop successful PRRR roles. There should be no particular order or bias for where and when certain functions of the framework begin, as all are equally important, and too often the emergency management framework, to its detriment, focuses around specific elements, such as recovery.

5.0 Emergency Prevention

5.1 Prevention

Emergency prevention does not refer to the true sense of the definition of prevention. That is, in many emergency scenarios there is no way to completely prevent, or eradicate the risk of an event occurring. Examples of these are things such as severe storms such as cyclones which affect Australia annually, or Bushfires. Prevention therefore refers more importantly to steps and procedures which need to be developed and implemented that prevent the damage and disaster of an emergency event from being severe or catastrophic and attempt to limit the negative effect. Prevention is a pro-active method of emergency management and is crucial in dealing with emergency situations, however this phase is not always given the great level of attention it deserves, leaving the re-active roles of response and recovery to become more severe.

5.2 Mitigation

Mitigation refers to the alleviation and lessening of the impact of something. In direct relation to emergency management, it is clear that this is an important factor when dealing with emergency situations as limiting their effects can save lives and property, diminishing its severity. Taking the correct steps to prepare and prevent an emergency situation from becoming a disaster is therefore an example of mitigation, such as tying down loose objects or evacuating in times of extreme weather.

Clipping trees down around electricity lines is an example of prevention, as it is an attempt to prevent the fire from occurring all together. The clearing of undergrowth and gutters, and having fire extinguishers on hand is an example of mitigation, where it is the effects of the fire, not the fire itself which is attempting to be lessened.

5.3 4 goals of prevention and mitigation

The four goals of prevention and mitigation attempt to contain the hazard, protect human life and property, restrict access and prevent the situation from occurring. The four goals of prevention and mitigation attempt, through the correct management, change the nature of the risk; reduce vulnerability to all affected to the risk, reduce exposure to, and where possible remove the risk completely (Manock, 2006).

5.4 Hazards approach

The all hazards approach refers to the considerations needed to be taken in relation to overseeing the great and diverse series of likely effects flowing on from all types of emergency situations. This approach is beneficial and insightful in relation to having an awareness of the degree that all emergency situations can adversely affect other situations, causing new emergencies and hazards within the community, creating new risks and having negative impacts on recovery.

The all hazards approach creates a prevention and mitigation strategy which can be directly applied to all hazards present, or that arise. This approach also means that all prevention and mitigation approaches can be applied universally and do not need to be reproduced for every incident repeatedly.

6.0 Prepared community

6.1 Requirements for prepared community

If in the unfortunate event that an emergency situation takes place, the best way to combat and mitigate its effects is to be prepared and ensure that all plans and resources are in place to create safety and support. This said, it is integral that the community that is directly affected by the emergency is prepared and informed about what to do and how to survive and play their role.

The community directly affected by the emergency need to be aware of all the dangers surrounding them, including hazards and exits and danger fronts. Leaders and particular community members must be in a position of power to lead and disseminate information so there is a co-ordinated plan for safety, if each community know his/her role and plays it effectively, the emergency effects can be minimised. The community should be aware of what resources are available to them and how to use them, where they are located and so forth. A prepared community does not stop at actions and processes used during an emergency but also should be prepared for the recovery phase and have an understanding of the time involved and roles in which they play.

6.2 Emergency management planning and community involvement

The emergency management planning model is a process which begins at hazard analysis and moves through to emergency management planning, emergency procedures, training analysis to exercising- a process which requires constant controlling and analysis and provides an important framework for prevention and preparedness (NDO, 1992). The success of emergency management planning is strongly focused around the first step which is hazard analysis. Emergency management planning should be figured and created around this, and the scenarios which it builds, not only response planning. Emergency management planning creates roles and procedures and outline who, where and how the plan will be achieved.

Acceptance, understanding and support for emergency planning are what will ultimately make the plan successful. Therefore, creating an involvement in the hazard analysis and broader emergency planning measures for the community creates acceptance and understanding in the measures decided upon. The community members understand the area which they live in better than anyone, so integrated decision making and involvement with emergency management at all levels is vital for the plans successful reception, longevity and community commitment.

6.3 Other preparedness measures

Other preparedness measures include things such as;

Mutual aid- mutual aid refers to an agreement made that officially defines the aid and support that one community can/will make available to another in the event of an emergency.

Training the community in what to do in an emergency is vital, having plans and exercises such as emergency evacuations of community centres and houses should be enacted in plans and practiced.

The resources needed to combat and mitigate an emergency should be collected and stored where they can be easily accessed by those who are qualified to use them.

7.0 Command Control & Coordination

It is extremely important that during a time of an emergency, when things are often frantic and chaotic, there is a clear understanding of who is in charge of command, control, and co-ordination and everywhere in between.

7.1 Command

Command involves the leadership of the people and property of a particular emergency agency in relation to the accomplishment of that specific agency?s responsibilities and role. The right to command is decided upon by law or in law or in accord with an agency agreement (VBRC, 2009). Command operates vertically within an agency (Manock, 2006).

7.2 Control

Control involves the complete course of reactive conduct in an emergency situation. The dissemination of power to control is established in law or in an emergency response plan, and include the responsibility for co-ordinating other agencies in unity with the requirements of the emergency circumstances. Control refers to situations and operates horizontally across agencies (VBRC, 2009).

7.3 Co-ordination

Co-ordination involves the amalgamation and incorporation of command and control, in using the resources on hand at maximum efficiency. Co-ordination is important to ensure that the correct resources as well as the correct use of resources are managed and directed for the specific emergency purpose.

8.0 The Human Factor

8.1 Human responses to emergencies/ disasters: 5 myths & realities

There are quite a number of differing opinions and beliefs about the coping mechanisms and the ability to deal with emergency situations that the human society possesses during the disaster-response phase. Often many of these are over exaggerated stereo-types and are not completely reflective all aspects and traits of human nature. Popular culture, through movies, photo and literature have created a widely accepted notion that during emergency situations the human response is one of complete chaos, hysteria, despair, looting and all types of other harmful, anti-social behaviour (Manock, 2006).

There is 5 notable myths recognised within the EMG100 course CD-ROM (Manock, 2006), these are:

1. People panic during emergency events

The reality is, that panic occurs in exceptional emergency events, however is uncommon in disasters. Ordinary people involved in an emergency situation respond to the risk by undertaking the most sensible and available solution they can to not only save them, but also aid any others in distress. Panic is often triggered by the result of a combination of situational factors such as no escape, no information and no leadership (Manock, The human factor, 2006). It is important to distinguish between panic and errors made due to bewilderment and information on the situation faced, all of which can be fatal (Wraith, 1986).

2. People look after themselves with little or no regard for others

This is a misconception, which as discussed above, is often misrepresented in popular culture, through the acts of looting in the face of withering authority and emergency control and through an ?every man for himself? notion. In reality, it takes one glance at a real emergency event, such as the Haiti earthquakes or the recent Black Saturday fires, that should be fresh in everyone?s mind, to see that the incredible nature and instinct of human behaviour does not support this. While personal safety is the first stage of response in an emergency, once this need has been fulfilled, the safety and assistance to others is in most cases evident. Many people in emergency situations lose their own life, when attempting to save someone else?s, this has happened in recent weeks, twice in relation to ocean drowning situations.

3. Anti-social behaviour increases

The social collapse of a community in an emergency situation can put stress on the ordinary laws and structure of everyday living, leading to the vulnerability of social, ethical and legal norms. While anti-social behaviour such as looting and other criminal conduct is often documented and in many cases exaggerated through the media, often very few cases are substantiated in law. The fact is, that of all the human actions witnessed in an emergency, it is often the very few, rare cases of anti-social behaviour that is held to be ?news worthy?, creating a picture which misrepresents the situation. This said however, during Hurricane Katrina, there was widespread looting and criminal activity which caused chaos in the city of New Orleans and its evacuation centres.

4. People are gripped by a sense of helplessness

The sudden and extremely volatile situation of being involved in an emergency/disaster generally does not trigger those involved to display the signs of being overcome with distress and emotion that is often portrayed by some stereotypes- that is freezing and become immobile and helpless. The shock and disturbance associated with an emergency event, generally leads to look for constructive and appropriate means to survive and help (Manock, 2006).

5. Children are too young to be affected

Although it is commonly believed that young children are not mentally inept and capable of fully realising the emergency at hand and therefore are not negatively affected, or only affected for a short period of time, this is not the case. Trauma and stress related to an emergency event can often manifest itself in post-event behaviour often not coming to fruition until sometime in the future, in ways such as nightmares, bed wetting and other negative self inflicted illness and behaviour (Wraith, 1986).

8.2 Human behaviour following trauma

Human behaviour following trauma is classically the same, regardless of situation. Following trauma, people generally follow through the same pattern, grieving the loss they have incurred, moving through sadness and distress, to making positive decisions, on the way to acceptance. Not all trauma victims will necessary move through all stages at the same rate, some emergency situations are worse than others- some may skip some, others will stay at a particular stage for longer, but for the overwhelming majority they will all reach acceptance in their own time.

8.3 Principles of recovery

Recovery must satisfy the physical, psychological and social needs of the community (Manock, 2006). The 8 principals that guide the recovery management framework after an emergency are particularly important.

9.0 Emergency Legislation

9.1 Integrated approach

The emergency management components of the prevention, preparedness, response and recovery framework are all bound, related and the success of each- dependent upon one another. It is for this reason, that the creation and ongoing success of each component is integrated with the other to create a successful and harmonious relationship within the framework. It is rare that one specific component can work efficiently or does not affect another. An active collaboration and monitoring effort to integrate all components is not only desirable to effective emergency management, but is imperative.

9.2 Roles of agencies / organisations

Just as the prevention, preparedness, response and recovery components of the emergency management framework must be integrated, so too does the roles of agencies and organisation which are a part of the emergency effort. There is a large and varying extent to which different agencies and organisations play a role in emergency situations, however many play differing roles in all stages of the framework and all work in an integrated way to manage the emergency on all levels, prevention to recovery.

An example of an integrated approach between agencies and emergency roles can be noted in the efforts of emergency services involving bushfires, between the CFA and the Police. Not only do both agencies play roles in prevention, working together to create a safer environment and teach the public how to help prevent fires occurring, but also combine forces, messages and actions at all levels; ensuring the most efficient prevention, preparedness, response and recovery through integrated action plans, communications and support. The role of the CFA and the ability to fight and overcome serious issues such as bushfires, would be far less productive and efficient on all levels without the integration of other agencies and at all levels of emergency management.

9.3 Need for and values of emergency legislation

With the large number of emergency agencies, individuals and organisations involved in emergency management, it is obviously important to distinguish and create clear responsibilities and set out what each is expected; for this reason emergency legislation is crucial. Emergency legislation provides a framework of support for all involved, giving certain parties authority and the right to act in an emergency situation.

The disaster of September 11, 2001 in New York involving terrorist activities resulting in large losses of life and large financial and property damage laid the foundations for many new pieces of emergency legislation, ranging from the ability for agencies to detain and question terrorism suspects to the way in which fire brigades are now required to be trained and on hand to fight not only traditional emergency situations, but also be equipped to react to terrorist attacks.

10.0 Conclusion

As is the volatile and unpredictable nature of emergency situations, the utmost detail must be given to the management of such events as well as the input of significant time and resources to ensure the ongoing creation and support of emergency framework and understanding of its diverse and vital make-up.

The concepts and principles, together with the definitions of many of the management scenarios may on the surface appear to be simply the same as those in other areas of management and life. As this report uncovers however, emergency management is quite specific and has much broader and detailed ways of looking at management framework, community and so forth.

As we in Australia found out in January of 2009 on Black Saturday, and as this report reiterates, emergency management is more than just important, it is a necessity. Working all the way from prevention to recovery and integrating approaches nationally, emergency management is an evolving and integral feature of our society.

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