HUMAN ANT SOCIETY--论文代写范文精选

蚂蚁获得他们的通信系统，相同的情况是蜜蜂的情况，一只蜜蜂有其他蜜蜂的基因,并接受巢穴,虽然没有令人信服的证据,群居昆虫可以在殖民地中区分血统，蜜蜂识别他人的基因型是一种有助于生存的方式。下面的paper代写范文进行论述。

ANT SOCIETIES
Ant societies contain highly morphologically and behaviorally differentiated individuals, resulting from very specific reproductive23 and developmental patterns: "Being social insects in the true sense of eusociality, one is describing a situation in which several generations live together and in which the offspring are reared by a caste itself unable to reproduce, so that one is able to distinguish a division of labour" (Dumpert 1978, p. 1); ants make use of a whole array of functional communication devices for the benefit (without obviously any deliberate intent) of the society as a whole: "The ability to communicate is one of the essential preconditions for social behavior... ants possess a particularly full repertoire of possibilities for mutual understanding" (p. 64).

Ant societies are organized to achieve the fundamental objectives of reproduction, development, feeding, defence, warmth, shelter, and so on. Dumpert describes features of any societies relevant for this paper: the ant hills of our indigenous ants have a plethora of internal subdivisions and conceal their inhabitants in an ordered structure of chambers and passages... intelligent and technically accurate constructions which, in their position and structure, fulfil the various temperature and moisture conditions for the development of the brood. Ant societies include individuals with very different reproductive roles; some which work, others which do not; over a third of all workers in a wood ant colony remain idle in the normal way of things, seem to have specialized in 'doing nothing'" some contribute, some do not; research on wood ants contradicts the idea of an equal distribution of food brought into a colony to all the members. Frequently there are individual ants who only take food and never hand it on; some individual workers may receive over 500 percent more than others. Ants acquire their communication system by shared upbringing, the culture of the nest. 

The chemical signals of the brood are not recognized by the workers from 'birth' onwards, but are learned during a sensitive phase shortly after hatching, probably irreversibly (Dumpert 1978, pp. 109, 116, 117, 1999). The same is the case for bees: "Many eusocial hymenopterans can recognize nest-mates.... a bee learns the genotypes of other bees in its colony, and accepts them as nest-mates, but does not know its own genotype.... there is no convincing evidence that eusocial insects can distinguish lineages within a colony... the ability of bees to recognize others by their genotype is of a kind that helps the survival of the colony, but not of particular lineages within the colony..." (Maynard Smith and Szathmary 1995, p. 267). Ants repel strangers, defend one another. The ants' pattern of societal organization has been successful over millions of years; it has allowed them to cope with major environmental changes, to colonize every part of the planet, every climatic region, innumerable specific niches; to form thousands of different species: "their attainment of a worldwide distribution across nearly all climatic boundaries, through the development of variations in behavior patterns [rather than through morphological adaptation]" (Dumpert 1978, p. 4).

Set against the development of the many different forms of ant societies (behaviorally distinguished as well as morphologically, one can consider the parallel development over a much shorter period of the many different forms of human societies, the similarities and dissimilarities of structure. Human societies constitute themselves by processes of isolation similar to those by which species are formed (the word 'pseudospeciation' has been used). The isolating mechanisms include language, geography, belief sets (religions and ideologies) as well as apparent physical differences. The objectives of the human society, however such a society originates, are the same as those of the ant society - survival, reproduction, security, defence, stability, perpetuation of the system. In the same way as the ant is integrated into the ant society by the distinctive features and functions of the individual ants, by the communication system, by the reproductive system, so the human individual is integrated into the human society by shared language, reproductive patterns, regularized interaction. "We accept [the origin of human speech] as being the decisive step in the origin of specifically human society" (Maynard Smith and Szathmary 1995, p. 12). 

The integration of the society is the basis for successful competition against other similar societies and for maintenance of the population. One can readily apply to human societies Dumpert's comment about ants: "the long-term advantage belongs to those species which are successful in maintaining their own in the face of their chief enemies which are, in the majority of cases, probably their own species or close relatives" (p. 263). In the ant society there is a societal genome, that is, a persisting array of genes from which the structure of the society derives. In the human society, there is also a societal genome, the population gene pool of the society from which the physical and cultural aspects of the society ultimately derive. Ants recognize each other as participants of the same society by chemical markers which are learnt in development; members of human societies recognize each other as members of the same society by language, ideological or physical markers, also learnt in development. Both ants and humans have neural predispositions to learn the character of the societal environment in which they find themselves.

NT SOCIETY?

 

The resemblances between ant societies and human societies are suggestive. Parallel systems may develop from parallel circumstances and achieve parallel practical ends: "Individual ants... can survive and transmit genes... only as part of a social group: the same is effectively true of humans" (Maynard Smith and Szathmary 1995, p. 7). The issue to be considered, looking to the future, is whether and in what directions human societies may develop. They are less physically integrated than the ant societies. Will they under the pressure of environmental, technological and other change come to resemble ant societies more closely - or will they diverge from the integrated pattern of ant societies? We are in a period of extraordinary fluidity in human societal organization. If the structure of a society (a system) largely derives from the structure of the reproductive system coupled with the structure of the communication system, then what follows when either or both of these change? prediction is difficult not least because "if current environmental conditions are too novel, then mechanisms may fail to develop, or to operate, as they did in the past" (Betzig 1989, 320).

The basis of a sociobiology of societies would presumably be population genetics. It would deal with evolved but malleable behavior patterns, the operation of group effects within the society, the relation between the evolutionarily determined behavioral characteristics of the individual and the changing societal environment. It might even attempt to identify and study the requirements for a successful society: order without rigidity, a capacity for innovation and the borrowing of innovation, unity of societal sentiment, the ability to understand and absorb the impact of technological and other changes, how basic human 'drives' are related, for example, to a well-functioning economic system, to a just balance of conservation and change, to the production of functionally useful patterns of societal behavior (morality, courtesy, social relations), the maintenance of societal health, of population size, of defensive strength, Most important would be the ability to respond effectively to changes in the internation environment. The structures of societies are subject to change as a result of interaction between environmental changes and fundamental (evolved) aspects of human emotional/action neural organization. If human societies are in overt or implicit competition with each other, then changes in individual societies will in fact reflect and exploit the new possibilities, for example, from progress in genetics, in genetic engineering, from the changes in communication systems, from changes in the understanding of the biological basis for human societies, the individual and social psychological organization of the human in society.

More specifically what are the new opportunities, or challenges, being offered by changes in the environment. How will human societies respond, both within each society and between societies? Again: "the potentials of a biological mechanism are not necessarily constrained by, and cannot necessarily be predicted from, the purposes for which the mechanism was designed by natural selection" (Symons 1979, p. 313). Rapid technological and scientific changes, which have played a dominant part in determining the form taken by human societies over historical time, are now in progress or in prospect which can bring about unprecedentedly major changes in the foundations of current human societies. The changes in progress or in prospect include many affecting the reproductive patterns of human society: advances in contraception, acceptance of abortion and even infanticide, vasectomy, homosexuality; other actual or expected change can be even more radical in their effects: genetic engineering, gene therapy, genetic screening, prosthetic surgery, advances in neurology. Add to these the widening use of powerful brain-modifying drugs, the misapplication of drugs developed for medical purposes (smart drugs) which affect the individual's relationship to society. And in another fundamental aspect of human society, advances in electronic supervision and communication, plus advances in facilities for population flow between societies.(paper代写)

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