ICONS AND SIGNS FROM THE ANCIENT HARAPPA--论文代写范文精选

文字起源仍然是开放的。在农业文明的蓬勃发展的地方,通过符号的使用来进行交流和记录。这意味着,某些时期在一些人口稠密区,符号和符号最终被用来创建一个书写系统,更复杂的社会需要增加记录和沟通。下面的paper代写范文将进行详述。

Abstract 
Written words probably developed independently at least in three places: Egypt, Mesopotamia and Harappa. In these densely populated areas, signs, icons and symbols were eventually used to create a writing system. It is interesting to see how sometimes remote populations are using the same icons and symbols. Here, we discuss examples and some results obtained by researchers investigating the signs of Harappan civilization.

Introduction 
The debate about where and when the written words were originated is still open. Probably, writing systems developed independently in at least three places, Egypt, Mesopotamia and Harappa. In places where an agricultural civilization flourished, the passage from the use of symbols to a true writing system was early accomplished. It means that, at certain period in some densely populated area, signs and symbols were eventually used to create a writing system, the more complex society requiring an increase in recording and communication media. Signs, symbols and icons were always used by human beings, when they started carving wood or cutting stones and painting caves. We find signs on drums, textiles and pottery, and on the body itself, with tattooing. 

To figure what symbols used the human population when it was mainly composed by small groups of hunter-gatherers, we could analyse the signs of Native Americans. Our intuition is able to understand many of these old signs, because they immediately represent the shapes of objects and animals. It is then quite natural that signs and icons, born among people in a certain region, turn out to be used by other remote populations. These signs are the most archaic ones, connected with animal, water, sky and the hunting. When populations settled down, the number of symbols increased to represent a complex social organisation, as in the case of Harappa culture. In this fascinating and huge research area, let us discuss examples and some results which researchers investigating this Indus culture have obtained. We will discuss the seals and some of the signs found on them, and report shortly the debate on their interpretation and on the question if Harappan writing is a syllabic one.

Harappan civilization
The ancient city of Harappa in Pakistan existed from about 3300 until 1600 BC. Till 1921 just few bronze objects and a surprising seal with symbols were known of its ancient culture: in that year, the Indian archaeologist Rai Bahadur Daya Ram Sahni discovered the place where that very old town was settled [1]. The Harappa Culture extended well beyond the bounds of Pakistan: its centres were in Sindh and the Punjab [2]. Also known as the Indus Valley Civilization, the Harappa Culture arose approximately at 6000 BC. The two greatest cities, Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa, emerged at 2600 BC, along the Indus rive valley. 

This civilization had a symbolic script system and urban centres with complex social and economic system. In fact it was mainly an urban culture sustained by surplus agricultural production and commerce. Both Mohenjo-daro and Harappa were built according to similar plans of streets, flat-roofed brick houses, and administrative or religious centres. The inhabitants did not know iron, but water was maintained and controlled in the city houses, with underground supply and drainage systems. These civilizations then appear to have a high organisation level, as shown by the remains of water systems and by the layout of according to a grid-like structure [3].

Icons of the Ancient Harappa
Pottery adorned with animal and geometric motifs has been found in profusion at all the major Indus sites. But the most interesting objects unearthed are small, squared seals engraved with human or animal motifs. Seals are bearing inscriptions, generally considered as written words. The seals suggest trading among several populations. Generally, these seals are created using steatite, occasionally in silver or other materials. The seal shows a relief image and a script, usually very brief. Several seals include markings on the rear side or along the edge that are similar in appearance to Roman numerals [3].

The icons on seals are representing a single local animal, domesticated (long-horned and shorthorned bulls, humped zebus, water buffaloes, goats) and savage (rhinoceroses, tigers, gavials and elephant) but also human beings in a yogic position. One of these icons is defined as the "Lord of the Beasts" shown a man seated cross-legged and wearing a water-buffalo headgear [4,5], in fact a "sitting buffalo". According to Ref.4 and 5, the animal is probably a totemic animal, that is the ancestor of a group of people or clan. The dominant image is accompanied by an item that could a basket, fountain, a sacred tree or a "stem" emblem such as one also shown being carried in processions. In Fig.1, a sketch of a seal with a one-horned animal is shown. Some archaeologists suggest that these seals were used for commerce purposes, or worn as a protective amulet [6,7].

Conclusions 
The problem on the nature of Harappan signs is still open. According to many researchers, the Harappan signs are representing a true writing systems. And in fact, as we have reported on the discussion of the fish-like sign, researchers are using the phonetic of Proto-Dravidian to understand the meaning of some signs. Then the Indus inscriptions should be a syllabic writing. Some researchers are against the syllabic nature of Harappan signs. The reader can find evidences at Ref.12. Let us just report one remark told by Fairservis: "seal writing is not necessary writing derived from the oral language. It has its own meanings and in effect need not have verb, adjective or adverb. Rather it may be simply a kind of label specifying the individual or his god, house, or belongings, much as a haraldic device" [13,14]. This idea of haraldic sign is in agreement with considering the animals on seals as totemic animals. Hopefully, an increase of shoveling activity may reveal much more data to fix any limited interpretation and improve the knowledge of Harappan scripts.

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