英语语言教学中的行为主义研究--加拿大Assignment代写范文

加拿大Assignment代写范文:“英语语言教学中的行为主义研究”，这篇论文主要描述的是英语教学经过长期的发展，教师们也在教学的过程中研究出相应的教学方法，本文要研究的就是行为主义英语语言学习理论，有学者认为这种教学方式能够让学生通过行为的方式，更好的理解和学会英语语言，能够让人们积极参与到学习当中，这也涉及到了行为研究的科学分支。

Action research in English Language Teaching is relatively a recent development which has been predominant in the literature in late 1980s and early 1990s. This essay explores the definitions, literature, benefits and challenges of action research as a method of teacher research in teacher education and development. It concludes by a critical assessment of the application of this research methodology and its sustainability in ELT.

1. 前言---INTRODUCTION

There is a plethora of definitions of action research just as there is myriad literature on the subject by many scholars in many fields of human endeavour. Burns (2005) in her seminal paper on action research has explored definitions of action research by extensively highlighting the views of educators such as Denzin & Lincoln (1998), Rogers (1961), Grotjahn (1987), Freire (1970), Schutz (1967) among others. She sums up that action research is a "part of 'a quiet methodological revolution' towards qualitative research approaches" which impacted on the social sciences and emerged in reaction to scientific, experimental and quantitative paradigms. It encourages "participative, 'naturalistic' enquiry with its exploratory-interpretive underpinnings" (Burns, 2005:57). Action research, since 1940s, and its related branches such as action science, action learning, practitioner research, participatory research, and collaborative/cooperative enquiry have been part of the new revolution towards change in human social and economic situations. Burns further explains that action research is a general movement that attempts to create meaning and understanding in a problematic social situations and improving the quality of human interactions and practices within those situations.

The relevance of action research to English Language Teaching and teacher education, as we can deduce from the foregoing, is that it cuts across many disciplinary fields which include the field of applied linguistics. It is seen as a flexible research methodology suitable for research that supports change. According to Hopkins (1985: 32) and Ebbut (1985:156) the combination of action and research presupposes action as a form of disciplined inquiry in which personal attempt is made to understand, improve and reform practice. Cohen & Marion (1994:186) see action research as "small-scale intervention in the functioning of real world" thus a closer examination of the effects of change of such intervention integrates social research with exploratory action topromote development. Lisa (2008:4) states "action research involves fluid and overlapping cycles of investigation, action planning, piloting of new practices and evaluation of outcomes incorporating at all stages the collection and analysis of data and generation of knowledge. She maintains "that the outcomes of action research are both practical and theoretical. The knowledge it generates has a direct and ongoing impact on changing practice for participants and on a wider audience through its publications", and application.

This essay, however, focuses on educational action research (teacher action; as in Borg's paper on 'Conditions for Teacher Research'; Condition 9: Community) with inclination to English language teaching. Thus the essay explores educational action research, its processes, purposes and characteristics in line with the views expressed by Burns (2009). The essay draws its conclusion from the challenges, status and how action research can be encouraged, maintained and promoted in English language teaching.

2. 行为研究的起源---THE ORIGIN OF ACTION RESEARCH

The popular belief is that Kurt Lewin is the originator of action research in the 1940s. His work was intended to change the life chances of disadvantaged groups in terms of housing, employment, prejudice, socialization and training. The combination of action and research has contributed to the attraction of this method of research to researchers, teachers, academic and educational community. Kurt was a psychologist, influenced by the work of the social philosopher, J. L. Moreno, in group dynamics and social movements in early 20th century Germany. Kurt conceived of research as leading to social action, and saw action research as a spiral of steps 'each of which is composed of circle of planning, action and fact-finding about the result of the action' (Lewin, 1948:206, cited in Burns, 2009:58). Zuber-Skerritt (1996a) suggests emancipatory action research...is collaborative, critical and self-critical inquiry by practitioners... into a major problem or issue or concern in their own practice. They own the problem and feel responsible and accountable for solving it through teamwork and through following a cyclical process of:

1. strategic planning;

2. actions, i.e. implementing the plan;

3. observation, evaluation and self-evaluation;

4. critical and self-critical reflections on the results

On the basis of points 1-3 decisions could be made for the next cycle of action research. Earlier, Zuber-Skerritt (1996a:3-5) argues action research is emancipatory when it aims not only at technical and practical improvement and the participants' better understanding, along with transformation and change within the existing boundaries and conditions, but also at changing the system itself or those conditions which impede desired improvement in the system/organization... There is no hierarchy, but open and 'symmetrical communication'. The emancipatory interest is based on the notion of action researchers as participants in a community of equals and as improvement to professional practice at the local, perhaps classroom level, within the capacities of individuals and the situations in which they are working. Action research is part of a broader agenda of changing education, changing schooling and changing society.

A review of action research frameworks reveals several common features. An action research project seeks to create knowledge, propose and implement change, and improve practice and performance (Stringer, 1996). Kemmis and McTaggart (1988) suggest that the fundamental components of action research include the following: (1) developing a plan for improvement, (2) implementing the plan, (3) observing and documenting the effects of the plan, and (4) reflecting on the effects of the plan for further planning and informed action. New knowledge gained results in changes in practice (see also, Fullan, 2000a). Action research is often conducted to discover a plan for innovation or intervention and is collaborative. Based on Kemmis and McTaggart's (1998) original formulation of action research and subsequent modifications, Mills (2003) developed the following framework for action research:

- Describe the problem and area of focus.

- Develop research questions.

- Describe the intervention or innovation to be implemented.

- Describe the membership of the action research group.

- Develop a list of resources to implement the plan.

- Describe the data to be collected.

- Develop a data collection and analysis plan.

- Select appropriate tools of inquiry.

- Carry out the plan (implementation, data collection, data analysis).

- Report the results.

This deductive approach implements a planned intervention, monitors its implementation, and evaluates the results. A more inductive approach, formulated by Burns (1999), is to carry out action research to explore what changes need to be made or what actions need to be taken in a specific instructional setting. Burns suggests the following interrelated activities:

- Explore an issue in teaching or learning.

- Identify areas of concern.

- Observe how those areas play out in the setting of the study.

- Discuss how the issue might be addressed.

- Collect data to determine the action to be taken (e.g., student questionnaires, observation reports, journal entries).

- Plan strategic actions based on the data to address the issue.

Kemmis and McTaggert's approach focuses on implementing an action plan, whereas Burns' focuses on planning for action.

Commonly used data collection tools in action research projects include existing archival sources in schools (e.g., attendance reports, standardized test scores, lesson plans, curriculum documents,), questionnaires, interviews, observation notes and protocols, videotapes, photographs, journals and diaries, and narratives (e.g., stories told by teachers, see Hartman, 1998).

行为研究教育---ACTION RESEARCH IN EDUCATION

Burns (2009) points out that 'the modern seeds of AR in educational contexts can be found in the work of John Dewey (and... can be traced to Aristotle)'. Dewey had argued against the separation of theory from practice, and this had profoundly influenced educational enquiry in the first part of the 20th century to the present time. This has been the basis for future research by educators, academics and social scientists into their various fields with the aims of improving the human conditions.

Nevertheless, in recent years a great body of literature in language teacher education has focus on teacher beliefs and reflection. Movement such as the 'teacher as researcher' and 'teacher as reflective practitioner' have been trying to promote the benefits of empowering teachers to take control of their professional development and curriculum development through reflection on practice. The new trend encourages teachers to carry out systematic rigorous enquiry into problematic areas of teaching, learning and curriculum in their classrooms, devise plans of action, carry out these plans of action and collect data to evaluate the revised plan in a cyclic pattern(Denny,2005:59-60). It is however noteworthy to understand that the movements 'teacher as researcher' and 'teacher as reflective practitioner' developed in different forms by different proponents of AR in UK, the USA and Australia, though they have much in common and strongly influenced by teacher education(Zeichner,2001 in Denny, 2005).

After all the polemics, it is obvious and important that teachers need support in order to carry on AR, streamline the research process, understand and imbibe group research ethics, ability to learn fast and become familiar with the literature on the theme of the research.

Teachers on training like us, and practicing ELT/ESL with less experience or even completely unfamiliar with AR should be enlightened, given guidance on background reading in research methodology before any assignment or to initiate AR project. Where resources are available, there would be the need to organise a workshop at the beginning for a group with a varied and differing experiences to teach the principle of action research, methods of finding a focus which is realistic, selecting and designing the data gathering tools and planning the research timeline(Denny,2005).

Also in line with Denny's (2005) suggestion, I feel that teacher researchers involved in group project should be also be involved in organising initial workshops and dissemination of the results of the workshop through publication. The group should include a researcher experienced in AR and with experience in applying for grants, presenting and publishing research reports.

3. 行为研究的优点和好处---MERITS AND BENEFITS OF ACTION RESEARCH

Action research has made some significant positive impacts in language teaching field, especially ELT/ESL and on teachers involved in it, individually and collectively, however, the precise nature of these impacts on language teaching and learning may be difficult to ascertain in tangible concrete terms. This may not be unconnected to the argument that AR is not a research method can be sustained and replicated, because of lack of formal unified theory and training its conduct. Nonetheless, scholars such as Kemmis and McTaggart (1982:2-5, in Burns, 2005:68) claim that AR has enable teachers to develop skills in:

¨ thinking systematically about what happens in the classroom

¨ implementing action where improvements are thought to be possible

¨ monitoring and evaluating the effects of the with a view to continuing the improvement

¨ monitoring complex situations critically and practically

¨ implementing a flexible approach to school or classroom

¨ making improvements through action and reflection

4. 结论---CONCLUSION

This research methodology, despite many contentions, criticism, arguments and counter arguments on the nature, scope and processes, is used in many fields of human endeavour such as social and health services, community development and education, to address a long history of difficulties in successfully transferring research knowledge into changes in practice. It is a means of combining the generation of knowledge with professional development of practitioners through their participation as co-researchers. It also serves as a barrier breaker between policymakers and practitioners, giving them richer insights into practice and an active role in policy development as well as its implementation respectively. This is clear in a research where teachers are involved in the identification of problem, plan on how to solve the problem in a participatory, collaborative, cooperative way. The various inputs of individual teacher researcher and all participating teacher researchers are the data that would inform the policy of change. Thus when teachers are part of the planning of policy and designing curriculum, its implementation and improvement would better and easier.

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