Evolution as a Local-to- Global Problem--论文代写范文精选

人类语言的出现，意识发生通过选择和共同进化,随着社会起到一定的保护以及选择性的角色。有些奇怪的是,人类社会的选择主题很少被研究,尽管可能起到了至关重要的作用。下面的论文代写范文进行阐述。

Abstract
Darwin’s theory of natural selection considers both specific and general biological functions such as adaptation, reproduction, heredity and survival, has been substantially modified and enriched over the last century. In part, this is due to more precise mathematical approaches to population genetics and molecular evolution which developed new solutions to the key problem of speciation (Bendall, 1982; Mayr and Provine, 1980; Pollard, 1984; Sober, 1984; Gregory, 1987). Modified evolutionary theories include neo–Darwinism, the ‘punctuated evolution’ (Gould, 1977) and the ‘neutral theory of molecular evolution’ of Kimura (1983). 

The latter is particularly interesting as it reveals that evolutionary changes do occur much more frequently in unexpressed/silent regions of the genome, thus being ‘invisible’ phenotypically. Therefore, such frequent changes (‘silent mutations’) are uncorrelated with, or unaffected by, natural selection. For further progress in completing a logically valid and experimentally-based evolutionary theory, an improved understanding of speciation and species is required, as well as substantially more extensive, experimental/genomic data related to speciation than currently available. Furthermore, the ascent of man, is apparently not the result of only natural selection but also that of co-evolution through society interactions. Thus, simply put: the emergence of human speech and consciousness occurred both through selection and co-evolution, with the former not being all that ‘natural’ as society played a protective, as well as selective role from the very beginnings of hominin and hominid societies more than 2.2 million years ago. Somewhat surprisingly, the subject of social selection in human societies is rarely studied even though it may have played a crucial role in the emergence of H. sapiens, and occurs in every society that we know, without any exception.

Furthermore, there is a theory of levels, ontological question that has not yet been adequately addressed, although it has been identified: at what level does evolution operate: species, organism or molecular (genetic)? According to Darwin the answer seems to be the species. However, not everybody agrees because in Darwin’s time a valid theory of inherited characters was neither widely known nor accepted. The answer in both Goodwin’s opinion, and also in ours, lies in the presence of key functional/relational patterns that emerged and were preserved in organisms throughout various stages over four billion years or so of evolution. The fundamental relations between organism, species and the speciation process itself do need to be directly addressed by any theory that claims to explain the evolution of species and organisms.

Furthermore, an adequate consideration of the biomolecular levels and sub-levels involvement in speciation and evolution must also be present in any improved evolutionary theory. These fundamental questions were considered from the categorical ontology viewpoint in a recent report (Baianu et al, 2007a). Thus, one needs to address the question of super-complex systems’ evolution as a local-to-global problem instead of a topologically continuous process. We are then seeking solutions in terms of the novel categorical concepts that were sketched in the previous subsections and also exactly defined in recent reports (Brown et al, 2007a; Baianu et al, 2007a). Therefore, we consider here biological evolution by introducing the unifying metaphor of ‘local procedures’ which may represent the formation of new species that branch out to generate still more evolving species. 

Because genetic mutations that lead to new species are discrete changes, we are therefore not considering evolution as a series of continuous changes–such as a continuous curve drawn analytically through points representing species –but heuristically as a tree of ‘chains of local procedures’ (Brown, 2006). Evolution may be alternatively thought of and analyzed as a composition of local procedures. Composition is a kind of combination and so it might be confused with a colimit, but they are substantially different concepts. Therefore, one may attempt to represent biological evolution as an evolutionary tree, or ‘tree of life’, with its branches completed through chains of local procedures (pictured in Figure 1 as overlapping circles) involving certain groupoids, previously defined as variable topological biogroupoids in Baianu et al, (2007a). The overlaps in this latter representation ccorrespond to ‘intermediate’ species or classes/populations of organisms which are rapidly evolving under strong evolutionary pressure from their environment (including competing species, predators, etc., in their niche).

This novel, dynamic rather than historic/Darwinist intuition of evolution may be difficult to grasp at first as it involves several construction stages on different ontological levels: it begins with organisms (or possibly even with biomolecular categories), emerges to the level of populations/subspecies/ species that evolved into classes of species, that had then further evolved, ...and so on. 

Finally, it reaches the point in time where the emergence of man’s, Homo family of species began to separate from other hominin/hominide families of species some 5 to 8 million years ago. One concludes that evolutionary processes operate on several different levels/sublevels of reality, on different time scales; it is now generally accepted that speciation is also aided by geographical barriers or geological accidents. This highly complex, dynamic reality of the emerging higher levels of complexity is quite different from that in Darwin’s widely acclaimed “Origin of Species”, and it is also a much more powerful concept than Spencer’s vague evolutionary speculations in his several books on philosophical principles (1898). Furthermore, it also includes– but is not limited to– Goodwin’s excursions into contingent, ‘chaotic complexity’ (1994, 2000). The following subsection links up our novel evolutionary model with other recently emerging, autopoiesis models, as well as their earlier, corresponding Rosen’s MR-systems.

Autopoiesis Models: Species Survival and Extinctions through Space and Time
The autopoietic model of Maturana (1987) claims to explain the persistence of living systems in time as the consequence of their structural coupling or adaptation as structure determined systems, and also because of their existence as molecular autopoietic systems with a ‘closed’ network structure. As part of the autopoietic explanation is the ‘structural drift’, presumably facilitating evolutionary changes and speciation. One notes that autopoietic systems may be therefore considered as dynamic realizations of Rosen’s simple MR s. Similar arguments seem to be echoed more recently by Dawkins (2003) who claims to explain the remarkable persistence of biological organisms over geological timescales as the result of their intrinsic, (super-) complex, adaptive capabilities. 

The point is being often made that it is not the component atoms that are preserved in organisms (and indeed in ‘living fosils’ for geological periods of time), but the structure-function relational pattern, or indeed the associated organismic categories/ supercategories. This is a very important point: only the functional organismic structure or pattern persists as it is being conserved and transmitted from one generation to the next. Biomolecules turn-over in an organism, and not infrequently, but the structure-function patterns/organismic categories remain unchanged/are conserved over long periods of time through repeated repairs and replacements of the molecular parts that need repairing, as long as the organism lives. 

Such stable patterns of relations are, at least in principle, amenable to logical and mathematical representation without tearing apart the living system. Hence the relevance here, and indeed the great importance of the science of abstract structures and relations, i.e., Mathematics. In fact, looking at this remarkable persistence of certain gene subnetworks in time and space from the categorical ontology and Darwinian viewpoints, the existence of live ‘fossils’ (e.g., a coelacanth found alive in 1923 to have remained unchanged at great depths in the ocean as a species for 300 million years!) it is not so difficult to explain; one can attribute the rare examples of ‘live fossils’ to the lack of ‘selection pressure in a very stable niche’. 

Thus, one sees in such exceptions the lack of any adaptation apart from those which have already occurred some 300 million years ago. This is by no means the only long lived species: several species of marine, giant unicellular green algae with complex morphology from a family called the Dasycladales may have persisted as long as 600 million years (Goodwin, 1994), and so on. However, the situation of many other species that emerged through super-complex adaptations–such as the species of Homo sapiens–is quite the opposite, in the sense of marked, super-complex adaptive changes over much shorter time–scales than that of the exceptionally ‘lucky’ coelacanths. Clearly, some species, that were less adaptable, such as the Neanderthals or Homo erectus, became extinct. 

The Emergence of Homo sapiens and Human Society 
We are briefly considering here the tenuous evidence for the emergence of the Homo sapiens species– the Ascent of Man. The related question of the development of syntactically–structured speech through social co-evolution is also addressed in this section. Thus, the formation of the first human societies were apparently closely correlated with efficient communication through structured speech; on the other hand, the propagation, further development and indeed elaboration of speech was both made possible and sustained only through social interactions in the pre-historic human societies.(论文代写)

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