学生在教学中扮演着不同的角色--悉尼Essay代写范文

加拿大留学生Essay代写范文:“学生在教学中扮演着不同的角色”，这篇论文主要描述的是学生在教学活动中扮演着不同利益相关者的角色，以生命伦理学为例，道德操守与道德有着不同的含义，不应该混为一谈，道德是通过了人们的行为所感知和总结出来的正确价值观念，我们熟知这些道德观念，却不能够保证自己在生活中会从道德的角度出发来做事情。

The term ethics itself should not be confused with morals or morality. Morality is the practice of behaving in ways perceived or understood to be good or right by society while ethics is the systematic study of that behavior. People may think ethically (what are the “rules”, “principles” or “ideals” of acting right or good) but behave morally (not stealing for example).

Bioethics is the term used to describe ethics as it is applied to decision making and public policy in the areas of biology, medicine and healthcare. It is the study of the principles and ideals that govern and influence the decisions made regarding the use of animals in scientific research. For example, a general principle of “do not cause suffering” or “do no harm” introduces questions like, “How do we know when harm is being done?”, “How do we measure harm?”, “Should the amount of harm be proportional to the perceived or expected benefit?”, “How do we measure the proportions?”, “Is the benefit to 100 people equal to the harm of 100 animals?”

In this lesson, the students will role-play various stakeholders in a debate over the use of animals in pharmaceutical testing. They will be asked to 1) identify the ethical problems or questions pertinent to animal testing, 2) identify the stakeholders in animal testing, 3), assess the information available about animal testing, 4) consider all the options or outcomes available to the decision-maker regarding animal testing.

内容标准和渐进性指标---Content Standards & Progressive Indicators:

目标---Objectives:

Students will be able to identify and explain the ethical problem and/or questions pertinent to the issue of animal testing.

Students will be able to identify the stakeholders affected by the issue of animal testing.

Students will be able to assess the available information regarding animal testing.

Students will be able to consider and describe the various outcomes of the debate over animal testing.

目的---Purpose

To encourage and expand the ethical imagination of students by developing an awareness of the ethical values and principles governing the use of animal-testing in the pharmaceutical industry.

To develop analytical reasoning skills and communication of idea and ideals, especially in the realms of personal responsibility and moral ambiguity as it relates to the use of animal-testing in the pharmaceutical industry.

老师的角色---The Role of the Teacher:

Class discussions of ethics can be a frightening prospect for many teachers. You may fell that the issues can be too emotionally charged for the students to discuss calmly resulting in a discussion that jumps all over the place with no logical sequence. In the end, the discussion may have no satisfying conclusion. However, ethical discussions don’t need to be like this. They should follow the planned sequence of steps outlined below. This will help to maintain a sense of forward progression. At the end, the students will have a better understanding of the ethical issues as perceived by different stakeholders, a clarification of the values and ideals pertaining to the ethical decision. Most importantly, the students should feel that they have been led to think.

Your role in this bioethics discussion will be to facilitate the students progression through the 4 steps mentioned above (1. identify ethical problems or questions, 2. identify stakeholders, 3. assess available information, 4. consider all the options.) and to act as the final decision maker (to give the students a sense of conclusion).

The forum for the discussion is up to you. However, it is easier to manage the pace and progression of the discussion by asking to students to role-play in a forum with already established rules and expectations for a controlled discourse, such as a congressional hearing or a town council meeting. This will allow you to set time limits for students to speak as the stakeholders in the meeting, and will allow you to transition from “opening position statements” to “questions and rebuttals” for example. By assuming the role of the “chairperson” of the meeting, you have control of the floor at all times. Your decisions are final.

教学计划---Instructional Plan:

Optional Precursor Lesson: An understanding of the language and content of the current US regulations regarding the use of animals in research.

Estimated Lesson Time: 2-3 periods.

Preparation: become familiar with lesson plan and materials. Print handouts of case study. Print student worksheets.

材料和资源---Materials and Resources:

Weblinks.

The LD50 fact sheet.

Student worksheets.

建议的活动和过程---Suggested Activities/ Procedure

Part A – LD50 fact sheet – 1 Class period

Students begin by researching and/or reading the LD50 fact sheet which outlines one human use of animals in scientific research. Students use the contents of the LD50 fact sheet to complete the following components as a class in a teacher-led discussion:

1) Identify the ethical problems or questions pertinent to the decision required.

For example:

a) What is the issue to be decided?

b) Who makes the final decision?

2) Identify the stakeholders and their set of values (4-5 stakeholders are best).

For example:

a) Who has a stake in the decision?

b) Why?

c) How may the stakeholders be affected by the decision?

3) Consider all the options or outcomes available to the decision-maker.

For example:

a) Accept the animal model, modify or reject it.

b) Seek alternative methods.

Laboratory animal veterinarians.

Scientists conducting research.

Nonscientists.

Individuals unaffiliated with the laboratory institution.

Patients and families (or future patients).

The animals themselves.

Insurance companies.

Tax payers.

Law makers.

In general, the ethical discussion is best served when stakeholders represent those predominantly concerned with animal welfare, those predominantly concerned with human interest and those in the “middle of the road”.

Part B – Student Exercises – 1 Class Period

Assign students to various stakeholder groups. An interesting twist is to place students in stakeholder groups that are contrary to their personal beliefs to facilitate their ethical imagination and help to diffuse some emotional disagreements that may emerge.

Using the worksheet as a guide, each stakeholder group should

1) Formally state their position statement. This statement should reflect the value set of the stakeholders. This is their ethical position.

2) Assess the information available. It would behoove the students to be familiar with the information that other stakeholders are likely to review. The information could be used to answer questions such as:

a) How good are the animal models?

b) How do we currently assess animal suffering?

c) What are the alternatives available?

d) What is the best way to test toxicity?

e) What are the current protocols?

f) Is this line of research profitable?

g) Could profits be affected by public ridicule over the protocols?

h) Are there any outcomes that would satisfy all stakeholders?

Part C – Class Discussion – 1 Class Period

Bring the student stakeholder groups together in the forum of your choosing.

Allow each group time to discuss and prepare 2 or 3 questions to ask any other group of their choosing and allow those groups a set time to respond.

Note the points of agreement and disagreement throughout the exchanges.

Allow each group to make a final statement which either reaffirms their original position or restates their value set and modifies their position statement.

学生评价---Student Assessment:

Assessments should reflect

any greater understanding of the issues involved,

any sympathies towards other stakeholders and why.

Ask the students to state their personal ethics about animal testing before and after the activity.

Ask the students to identify one position or value from another stakeholder group that they had not considered or were not aware of, and ask them to explain any effect that had on their own ethics.

Ask the students to present their list of agreements among the different stakeholders and think about alternative solutions based on those agreements that were not part of the discussion.

Ask the students to image a “best case” scenario for their stakeholder group, and ask them to explain the probability of that case actually occurring.

活动---Ex tension Activities:

Have the students find articles from newspapers or magazine on animal research and review them for coverage of the ethical positions of various stakeholders.

资源/参考文献---Resources/ References:

The LD50 fact sheet:

The Lethal Dose 50 Percent (LD50) test is a procedure that exposes animals to a particular chemical in order to yield an estimate of how poisonous that chemical would be to human beings. Substances tested can include drugs, cosmetics, household products (e.g., cleaners), industrial chemicals (e.g., lubricants), pesticides, and the individual ingredients of any of these products. The test procedure consists of sorting animals into groups and then giving each animal in a group the same dose of the test chemical. The chemicals are administered in doses ranging from low to high in an effort to span the spectrum from relatively harmless (nontoxic) to extremely harmful (lethal to all animals). The primary aim of the procedure is to estimate the dose that kills 50 percent of the animals to whom each chemical is administered. This dose is called the LD50 value. In theory, the higher a chemical's LD50 value, the lower its toxicity.

The procedure for conducting the LD50 test varies according to how the animal is exposed to the test substance. The most common variation (the Oral LD50) involves force-feeding the animal via a stomach tube or, when convenient, simply putting the substance into the animal's food or water. Other variations entail forcing the animal to breathe the substance (the Inhalation LD50), applying the substance directly to shaved skin (the Dermal LD50), and injecting the substance into the body, usually the abdomen (the Injection LD50).

The animals most often used in the LD50 test are rats and mice; others include rabbits, guinea pigs, dogs, monkeys, birds, and fish. The animals are observed for at least one week after being given a dose of the chemical. Common signs of poisoning are bleeding from the eyes, nose, mouth, or other orifices, an inability to breathe, convulsions, tremors, paralysis, and coma. The animals are not provided with painkillers because they may affect the test outcome.

监管机构---Regulatory Agencies:

Wikipedia maintains a section on animal testing. It contains links to the USDA (Unites States Department of Agriculture) and the Public Health Service (PHS) Policy on Humane Care and Use of Laboratory Animals, which became statutory with the Health Research Extension Act 1985, and which is enforced by the Office of Laboratory Animal Welfare (OLAW). The following is an excerpt from that site and provides a good starting point for further information:

In the United States, animal testing is primarily regulated by the 1966 Animal Welfare Act, which is enforced by the Animal Care division of the Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS) of the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA). The AWA has been amended five times since 1966, most recently with an amendment in 2002 excluding birds, rats, and mice bred for research (as opposed to wild-captured mice, rats, and birds.) It contains provisions to ensure that members of covered species used in research receive a certain standard of care and treatment, provided that the standard of care and treatment does not interfere with "the design, outlines, or guidelines of actual research or experimentation". The AWA covers mammals only. Purpose-bred mice, rats, and birds were specifically excluded from coverage by the 2002 Farm Security Act, meaning that relatively few animals used in research in the U.S. are covered by this legislation. The AWA requires each institution conducting animal testing using covered species to maintain an Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC), which is responsible for enforcing the Act. Institutions are subject to unannounced annual inspections. There are over 100 inspectors to monitor around 1100 research institutions. The inspectors also conduct pre-licensing checks for sites that do that not engage in animal research or transportation, of which more than 4000 exist (e.g. dog kennels).

Another regulatory instrument is the Public Health Service (PHS) Policy on Humane Care and Use of Laboratory Animals, which became statutory with the Health Research Extension Act 1985, and which is enforced by the Office of Laboratory Animal Welfare (OLAW). This Act applies to any individual scientist or institution in receipt of federal funds, and requires each institution to have an IACUC. OLAW enforces the standards of the Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals published by the Institute for Laboratory Animal Research, which includes all vertebrate species in its care protocols, including rodents and birds (Introduction, p.1). In 2004, the National Institutes of Health provided funds to 3,180 different research institutions and universities. This means that IACUCs oversee the use of all vertebrate species in research at facilities receiving federal funds, even if the species are not covered by the AWA. OLAW does not carry out scheduled inspections, but requires that "As a condition of receipt of PHS support for research involving laboratory animals, awardee institutions must provide a written Animal Welfare Assurance of Compliance (Assurance) to OLAW describing the means they will employ to comply with the PHS Policy." OLAW conducts inspections only when there is a suspected or alleged violation that cannot be resolved through written correspondence.

Accreditation from the Association for Assessment and Accreditation of Laboratory Animal Care International (AAALAC), a non-governmental, nonprofit association, is regarded by the industry as the "gold standard" of accreditation. Accreditation is maintained through a prearranged AAALAC site visit and program evaluation hosted by the member institution once every three years. The accreditation ensures that a reasonable level of compliance to the standards in the Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals is met, as well as any other national or local laws on animal welfare.

链接---Weblinks:

The following additional weblinks contain resources regarding the use of animals in scientific research. You may suggest them to your students as starting points in their research:

Animal Welfare Act and Its Regulations for Biomedical Research Institutions

Office of Laboratory Animal Welfare Public Health Service Policy on Humane Care and Use of Laboratory Animals Amended August, 2002

Institutional Animal Care and Use Committees

Staying Connected: Internet Resources for the Institutional Animal Care & Use Committee

Alternatives to Animal Use in Research, Testing, and Education

International guiding principles for biomedical research involving animals (1985)

The Humane Society of the United States

老师笔记---Teacher’s Notes:It is not essential to familiarize yourself with all of the language and nuance of government regulations, but rather to understand some of the guiding principles behind the regulation. Remember, the bioethical discussion is not founded on the issues of compliance (whether or not a lab is in compliance is an issue for regulators and lawyers – on both sides), but rather on the concepts of values and principles that each stakeholder will identify to argue and justify their ethical positions. For example, a stakeholder group may argue that “no animals should ever be used in testing” because their set of values (ethics) includes the concept of “universal suffering” and an equal “moral status” for all animals. They should be permitted to explore this argument regardless of what the “law allows”. No stakeholder should begin the discussion with the disadvantage of having to argue against the law.

Accreditation from the Association for Assessment and Accreditation of Laboratory Animal Care International (AAALAC), a non-governmental, nonprofit association, is regarded by the industry as the "gold standard" of accreditation. Accreditation is maintained through a prearranged AAALAC site visit and program evaluation hosted by the member institution once every three years. The accreditation ensures that a reasonable level of compliance to the standards in the Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals is met, as well as any other national or local laws on animal welfare.

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