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建立人际资源圈The urban planning in the USA--- Essay论文范文
2016-07-27 来源: 51Due教员组 类别: Essay范文
这篇The urban planning in the USA Essay范文讲述了美国的城市规划，美国建筑师拒绝考虑别建筑物，而是一个更大的城市网络，每一个城市的发展都应具有他的特色。支持城市美化运动的概念最初是改善美国城市的美感，该运动还推出了一个周详的计划的理念，为整个城市地区，摆脱设计个别建筑物，组合起来可能是伟大的建筑辉煌城市。
Many of the problems with these urban centres resided in their undisciplined growth. At this time architects refused to consider that they built more than individual buildings, but a much larger urban network.
Architects were becoming more obsessed with creating architecture which was a credit to their name and skill for individual glory, rather than co-operating, ‘working in unison’ for the greater good. Relative to the grandeur of European cities such as Paris and Venice the USA was leagues behind; the rich upper classes of the USA were acutely aware of this, and in a rather selfish, self-aware approach they wanted to amend this, if not for their dignity then simply for that the fact that the quality of life in many European cities far surpassed the overpopulated centres in the USA.[6]
However the aims of urban planning in the USA had to deal with a different function than many of the cities which were inspirational to this movement. For example Venice relied on traders and markets to generate capital; however a city such as New York or Chicago would base its function around manufacture. Therefore in order to create a truly great city plans had to create spatial wonder on a par with Venice, along with industrial productivity to rival Manchester or Birmingham.
The first physical step to amending and “beautifying” American cities was literally that. The 1893 World Exposition, held in Chicago was effectively a 1:1 model of how Daniel Burnham, John Root and Fredrick Law-Olmsted envisioned American architecture and urban planning.
Within this were a number of architectural/planning firsts. It was the first co-ordinated approach to planning in the sense that a team of architects, surveyors and landscape architects worked together to create a coherent city plan which was designed with a “conscious hand” and was to be followed ,without exception, at all times.
Added to this the exposition incorporated both art and sculpture into its design and on a vast scale, a feature of architecture which had been omitted in many urban areas in the USA, leading to slum like living conditions.[7]
Some of the mostimportant themes that came from this exposition would have been the use of the Beaux-Arts Architectural styling, the concept of the White City and the harmony and balance with which the exposition was designed. However the main undercurrent theme of the entire exposition was the concept of American Exceptionalism[8], which the exposition was soon to become a symbol of, showing Americans, through demonstration, that the USA was the greatest nation on Earth.
Theory
The theory supporting the concept of the city beautiful movement was initially to improve the aesthetic of US cities. However by doing this with reference to the classic periods of architecture (Renascence, Classical and Greek) it quickly became more than simply “Urban Beautificaton.” Buildings were often finished in white, connected by long colonnades and surrounded by Sculpture and vistas[9], and though this may seem aesthetically driven the reasoning for this lay in the French inspiration for the plans of these new cities.
Baron Haussmann, responsible for the plan of Paris designed through “seizing strategic points and opening up their approaches”[10]; his method of designing urban areas was to “make no little plans.”[11] From this Burnham and his colleagues knew that an effective city plan is one which details every area and aspect of the city. This they applied to their work, most notably in the regional plan created for Chicago in 1909 (Burnham and Bennett.)[12] Unknown to them was the fact that Pierre Charles L'Enfant, regarded by some to be the forefather of the City Beautiful movement, used a similar approach to his work in the planning of Washington D.C in 1791. In this he made the Capitol a strategic point, upon which all major routes lead out from; in his words “prolonging (The Capitol) on far distant points of view.”[13]
The image of the Chicago plan (Figure 1) shows how Burnham based the city around a central public area, which can be accessed along long boulevards which cut right through the city to ensure that the centre of the city remains both visible and easily accessible even from the urban fringe of the city. This was soon to become a theme intrinsically linked with the City Beautiful.
Added to this the City Beautiful manifesto strove to enforce the monumental. This however was not to be executed through the scale or mass of a building, rather through “Consistency, Proportion and Detail”[14] within their design. Examples of this may be the White house in the city of Washington D.C (Figure 2), or Grand Central Station, New York (Figure 3). In both it is easy to see that they are not the largest buildings in the surrounding area, however their detail, consistency and dominance of their site leads them to appear as a more defiant, almost stronger building than any of the surrounding buildings, thus creating a sense of true monumentality without the need for excessive scale.
All plans for any city designed within the City Beautiful movement made prolific use of white materials and finishes. The reasoning for such a dramatic finish was to further the original aim of this movement. Clearly such a finish when applied to an entire urban area creates a strikingly beautiful city; however it was hoped that the ‘White City’ in all its opulence would facilitate civic and moral rectitude, ridding these urban areas from their former lives of crime and unrest, and tempting wealthy persons to gentrify these renewed urban centres.
The movement made great use of architectural detailing normally reserved for cathedrals or strictly for the upper classes of society; though seemingly glutinous and purely aesthetic this had a greater moral value. Train Stations, Shops and Warehouses were all designed to the same level of detail, regardless if it was to be used by the wealthiest or poorest members of society. Moreover the extensive use of art and sculpture throughout the city attempted to create a vivid backdrop to the lives of all in the city. In doing this planners hoped that the radically new cities would not descend into bleak urban gloom, but would rather facilitate the growth of a positive democratic culture. Effectively planners were demonstrating that everything was possible for every person, regardless of wealth or cultural background[15]. Once again we see the use of this movement as more than urban planning, but as a beacon of American Exceptionalism and the American Dream.
Development of movement
Throughout the time of the City Beautiful movement there were protagonists to the movement. Most notably Louis Sullivan, a cornerstone of the Chicago school of architecture, rather damningly stated that the implications of the City Beautiful movement would result in “...no American architecture for Fifty years.”[16] A statement made due to the movements reliance on the theory and movements of European schools of design. This potential flaw was not to be condemning of the movement, as advocates of the city beautiful were quick to point out that European schools, such as L’Ecole des Beaux Arts, Paris, was one of the few in the world teaching architects to design with the then new materials of reinforced concrete and steel. Irrespective of one’s moral stance on the issue it was the education of American architects in Europe which allowed them to design many of the new buildings (Department Stores, Large Warehouses, Hotels) required by the USA in a manner appropriate to the City Beautiful movement.[17]
So what of this movement today? Inevitably this movement, though in principle was perfect for the revolutionised USA, it remained so for only a few decades. In the end too few were able to see the core values of the movement, the principle of urban composition in tandem with an appreciation of art, and the often symbolic and powerful effects this can have.[18] Instead what was seen was a revival of an archaic form ofEuropean Architecture which could simply not be tolerated.
The movement may also have been condemned by the advancement in both technology and fashion, in the words of Christopher Tunnard:“...too often technology, fashion or ignorance dictates form, the movement is thus lost.”[19]
As the USA accelerated into a more modern era it was perceived that to represent their civilisation using such old design techniques was grossly inappropriate. In my mind at least this seems to focus too much on the aesthetic; what has been left behind by this movement is much more significant and meaningful to urban design and planning today than is immediately apparent.
For the first time in Modern American History this movement made an attempt to base the planning of settlements on artistic compositional values to attain regularity, and harmonious design throughout a city; rules which had for centuries been applied to the architecture of an individual building, but not an entire urban area. This was contrary to the previous trend of focusing on the economic profitability, which often resulted in unregulated sprawl development, with the resulting social ills of crime and poverty.
In previous movements of urban planning nothing more than the arrangement of buildings was considered. The City Beautiful attempted to not only provide order to the layout of a city, but also order to the society inhabiting it, hoping that the order and harmony would rid the USA of the violence experienced during the Civil War and Revolution preceding the birth of this movement.
The movement also introduced the idea of a thoroughly thought out plan for an entire urban area, ridding cities of the menagerie of design were individual buildings may be of great architectural splendour; however the proximity of radically differing designs made for a confusing urban fabric. A trait often observed in preceding movements, such as the artistic planning movement.
My final lingering thought regarding this movement, and indeed the thought which drew me to researching the City Beautiful initially, was the concept behind the movement itself. Due to its then radical replace, not retain stance, it could be argued that it was this movement that initiated the thoughts that lead to radical and fiercely contested movements; such as modernism, the Utopian theories developed by CIAM (Congrès International d'Architecture Moderne), along with redevelopment and renewal approaches to planning.
51Due原创版权郑重声明：原创范文源自编辑创作，未经官方许可，网站谢绝转载。对于侵权行为，未经同意的情况下，51Due有权追究法律责任。
51due为留学生提供最好的作业代写服务，想获取更多Essay代写范文，亲们可以进入主页 www.51due.com 为留学生提供essay代写服务，了解详情可以咨询我们的客服QQ:800020041哟。-lc
Many of the problems with these urban centres resided in their undisciplined growth. At this time architects refused to consider that they built more than individual buildings, but a much larger urban network.
Architects were becoming more obsessed with creating architecture which was a credit to their name and skill for individual glory, rather than co-operating, ‘working in unison’ for the greater good. Relative to the grandeur of European cities such as Paris and Venice the USA was leagues behind; the rich upper classes of the USA were acutely aware of this, and in a rather selfish, self-aware approach they wanted to amend this, if not for their dignity then simply for that the fact that the quality of life in many European cities far surpassed the overpopulated centres in the USA.[6]
However the aims of urban planning in the USA had to deal with a different function than many of the cities which were inspirational to this movement. For example Venice relied on traders and markets to generate capital; however a city such as New York or Chicago would base its function around manufacture. Therefore in order to create a truly great city plans had to create spatial wonder on a par with Venice, along with industrial productivity to rival Manchester or Birmingham.
The first physical step to amending and “beautifying” American cities was literally that. The 1893 World Exposition, held in Chicago was effectively a 1:1 model of how Daniel Burnham, John Root and Fredrick Law-Olmsted envisioned American architecture and urban planning.
Within this were a number of architectural/planning firsts. It was the first co-ordinated approach to planning in the sense that a team of architects, surveyors and landscape architects worked together to create a coherent city plan which was designed with a “conscious hand” and was to be followed ,without exception, at all times.
Added to this the exposition incorporated both art and sculpture into its design and on a vast scale, a feature of architecture which had been omitted in many urban areas in the USA, leading to slum like living conditions.[7]
Some of the mostimportant themes that came from this exposition would have been the use of the Beaux-Arts Architectural styling, the concept of the White City and the harmony and balance with which the exposition was designed. However the main undercurrent theme of the entire exposition was the concept of American Exceptionalism[8], which the exposition was soon to become a symbol of, showing Americans, through demonstration, that the USA was the greatest nation on Earth.
Theory
The theory supporting the concept of the city beautiful movement was initially to improve the aesthetic of US cities. However by doing this with reference to the classic periods of architecture (Renascence, Classical and Greek) it quickly became more than simply “Urban Beautificaton.” Buildings were often finished in white, connected by long colonnades and surrounded by Sculpture and vistas[9], and though this may seem aesthetically driven the reasoning for this lay in the French inspiration for the plans of these new cities.
Baron Haussmann, responsible for the plan of Paris designed through “seizing strategic points and opening up their approaches”[10]; his method of designing urban areas was to “make no little plans.”[11] From this Burnham and his colleagues knew that an effective city plan is one which details every area and aspect of the city. This they applied to their work, most notably in the regional plan created for Chicago in 1909 (Burnham and Bennett.)[12] Unknown to them was the fact that Pierre Charles L'Enfant, regarded by some to be the forefather of the City Beautiful movement, used a similar approach to his work in the planning of Washington D.C in 1791. In this he made the Capitol a strategic point, upon which all major routes lead out from; in his words “prolonging (The Capitol) on far distant points of view.”[13]
The image of the Chicago plan (Figure 1) shows how Burnham based the city around a central public area, which can be accessed along long boulevards which cut right through the city to ensure that the centre of the city remains both visible and easily accessible even from the urban fringe of the city. This was soon to become a theme intrinsically linked with the City Beautiful.
Added to this the City Beautiful manifesto strove to enforce the monumental. This however was not to be executed through the scale or mass of a building, rather through “Consistency, Proportion and Detail”[14] within their design. Examples of this may be the White house in the city of Washington D.C (Figure 2), or Grand Central Station, New York (Figure 3). In both it is easy to see that they are not the largest buildings in the surrounding area, however their detail, consistency and dominance of their site leads them to appear as a more defiant, almost stronger building than any of the surrounding buildings, thus creating a sense of true monumentality without the need for excessive scale.
All plans for any city designed within the City Beautiful movement made prolific use of white materials and finishes. The reasoning for such a dramatic finish was to further the original aim of this movement. Clearly such a finish when applied to an entire urban area creates a strikingly beautiful city; however it was hoped that the ‘White City’ in all its opulence would facilitate civic and moral rectitude, ridding these urban areas from their former lives of crime and unrest, and tempting wealthy persons to gentrify these renewed urban centres.
The movement made great use of architectural detailing normally reserved for cathedrals or strictly for the upper classes of society; though seemingly glutinous and purely aesthetic this had a greater moral value. Train Stations, Shops and Warehouses were all designed to the same level of detail, regardless if it was to be used by the wealthiest or poorest members of society. Moreover the extensive use of art and sculpture throughout the city attempted to create a vivid backdrop to the lives of all in the city. In doing this planners hoped that the radically new cities would not descend into bleak urban gloom, but would rather facilitate the growth of a positive democratic culture. Effectively planners were demonstrating that everything was possible for every person, regardless of wealth or cultural background[15]. Once again we see the use of this movement as more than urban planning, but as a beacon of American Exceptionalism and the American Dream.
Development of movement
Throughout the time of the City Beautiful movement there were protagonists to the movement. Most notably Louis Sullivan, a cornerstone of the Chicago school of architecture, rather damningly stated that the implications of the City Beautiful movement would result in “...no American architecture for Fifty years.”[16] A statement made due to the movements reliance on the theory and movements of European schools of design. This potential flaw was not to be condemning of the movement, as advocates of the city beautiful were quick to point out that European schools, such as L’Ecole des Beaux Arts, Paris, was one of the few in the world teaching architects to design with the then new materials of reinforced concrete and steel. Irrespective of one’s moral stance on the issue it was the education of American architects in Europe which allowed them to design many of the new buildings (Department Stores, Large Warehouses, Hotels) required by the USA in a manner appropriate to the City Beautiful movement.[17]
So what of this movement today? Inevitably this movement, though in principle was perfect for the revolutionised USA, it remained so for only a few decades. In the end too few were able to see the core values of the movement, the principle of urban composition in tandem with an appreciation of art, and the often symbolic and powerful effects this can have.[18] Instead what was seen was a revival of an archaic form ofEuropean Architecture which could simply not be tolerated.
The movement may also have been condemned by the advancement in both technology and fashion, in the words of Christopher Tunnard:“...too often technology, fashion or ignorance dictates form, the movement is thus lost.”[19]
As the USA accelerated into a more modern era it was perceived that to represent their civilisation using such old design techniques was grossly inappropriate. In my mind at least this seems to focus too much on the aesthetic; what has been left behind by this movement is much more significant and meaningful to urban design and planning today than is immediately apparent.
For the first time in Modern American History this movement made an attempt to base the planning of settlements on artistic compositional values to attain regularity, and harmonious design throughout a city; rules which had for centuries been applied to the architecture of an individual building, but not an entire urban area. This was contrary to the previous trend of focusing on the economic profitability, which often resulted in unregulated sprawl development, with the resulting social ills of crime and poverty.
In previous movements of urban planning nothing more than the arrangement of buildings was considered. The City Beautiful attempted to not only provide order to the layout of a city, but also order to the society inhabiting it, hoping that the order and harmony would rid the USA of the violence experienced during the Civil War and Revolution preceding the birth of this movement.
The movement also introduced the idea of a thoroughly thought out plan for an entire urban area, ridding cities of the menagerie of design were individual buildings may be of great architectural splendour; however the proximity of radically differing designs made for a confusing urban fabric. A trait often observed in preceding movements, such as the artistic planning movement.
My final lingering thought regarding this movement, and indeed the thought which drew me to researching the City Beautiful initially, was the concept behind the movement itself. Due to its then radical replace, not retain stance, it could be argued that it was this movement that initiated the thoughts that lead to radical and fiercely contested movements; such as modernism, the Utopian theories developed by CIAM (Congrès International d'Architecture Moderne), along with redevelopment and renewal approaches to planning.
51Due原创版权郑重声明：原创范文源自编辑创作，未经官方许可，网站谢绝转载。对于侵权行为，未经同意的情况下，51Due有权追究法律责任。
51due为留学生提供最好的作业代写服务，想获取更多Essay代写范文，亲们可以进入主页 www.51due.com 为留学生提供essay代写服务，了解详情可以咨询我们的客服QQ:800020041哟。-lc
