The world trade organisation--essay代写范文

51Due论文代写平台essay代写范文:“The world trade organisation”，这篇论文主要描述的是世界贸易组织（WTO）从成立到壮大的发展历程，以及世贸组织在世界经济和贸易中的地位和主要的职能，对于解决国家之间的贸易争端做出了哪些方面的重大贡献，并且举例一些比较经典的国际贸易纠纷进行分析。

The World Trade Organisation ('WTO') is located in Geneva, Switzerland. It was established in January 1995 having been created by the Uruguay Round negotiations of 1986-94.

Membership is around 146 countries at present.The WTO is a combination of agreements, negotiated and signed by the bulk of the world's trading nations. These agreements consist of legal ground-rules for international commerce, which are contractual obligations, that are binding on the governments, offering transparency and predictability.

The WTO retains the essential core business of its predecessor, GATT, in negotiating and enforcing rules for market access in industrial goods, but has gone further than the GATT. It now provides rules for market access in agriculture, textiles and clothing, and services; it has a strong agreement on intellectual property protection; and more detailed coverage of trade procedures, such as on subsidies, technical barriers to trade, sanitary standards, customs valuation and import licensing to name a few.

One of the main roles of The World Trade Organisation is to settle disputes between countries. For example Canada settled a trade dispute with Europe on Wednesday that will lead to the country dropping its six-year-old complaint at the World Trade Organization over European restrictions on imports of genetically modified food. In 2003, Argentina, Canada and the United States separately challenged the way the European Union handles genetically modified food imports. Three years later, the trade body ruled that Europe's methods from 1984 to 2004 were effectively a ban on genetically modified products and illegal under the trade agreement. Canada's complaint with Europe was focused on exports of canola, an oil seed. But that problem was actually resolved some months ago.

In exchange for Canada's dropping its trade complaint, the World Trade Organisation settled the dispute and Europe agreed to meet twice a year with Canadian officials to review the European Union restrictions on genetically modified food. Those sessions will also try to ensure they approve new biotech products at the same time.

Clearly the WTO has established a free market, offering access to other Members, whilst ensuring hat neither country's produce is discriminated against. Done though a series of agreements, the Members have agreed to adhere to the rules laid down in a uniform manner to other Member countries or face being brought before the dispute settlement body with the possibility of compensation or sanctions.

With its similarities to the WTO, the EU is clearly one of the largest and most comprehensive entity combining fifteen member states. The European Commission speaks for the member states at almost all of the WTO meetings. One of the main benefits of the WTO and EU system is that they are both rule-based.

Rule making guarantees that all members adopt the same basic standards, which is especially relevant to the WTO when dealing with global trade. Both are trying to diminish discrimination in one form or another and both have the facility for justice.

世界银行-The World Bank

The World Bank formally began operations on 26th June 1946. The initial authorised capital of the bank was $12 million. The primary purpose of the Bank was to provide loans for reconstruction and rebuilding of Western European countries after World War 2. Another purpose of the Bank was to invest in the developing world.

The lending for reconstruction ended in 1967, and into the present the Bank remains the largest source of development assistance. In 1947 the first ever loan was approved to Credit National of France for $250 million, which was the largest loan in real terms made by the Bank.

In 1962 the first loan for education was given to Tunisia. In 1966 the International Centre for the Settlement of Investment Disputes (ICSID) was established. It provides arbitration services in investment disputes, which arise between foreign investors and host country governments. It also provides advice to developing countries governments on the drafting of foreign investment laws and regulation

While there are many expectations and definitions of the fundamental role of the Bank, four different models or perspectives are the most common. The first is the view that the World Bank is a financial intermediary.

A second perspective or model is the view of the Bank as an evangelical agent in charge of changing the behaviour of governments in developing countries. The fourth is the view that the World Bank is a mechanism to transfer financial resources from richer to poorer countries.

By 1959 the Bank achieved the highest possible, triple bond rating, which has been rigorously maintained ever since. This was an important achievement for the bank, because it gets most of its funding from private money markets. Moreover, the first overseas offices were set up in Paris, Hague and Copenhagen, to oversee loan expenditure.

During this time it was also agreed that the interest rates paid by borrowing countries be the same for all courtiers, irrespective of their individual credit rating.

Today, the World Bank integrates its lending practices to meet environmental and infrastructural requirements, the world over. The new 'green' focus has made capital available to a number of developing and under-developed nations to improve exports, attain economic equanimity and at the same time guarantee citizens upgraded utilities and services.

The WTO's procedure for resolving trade quarrels under the Dispute Settlement Understanding is vital for enforcing the rules and therefore for ensuring that trade flows smoothly.

A dispute arises when a member government believes another member government is violating an agreement or a commitment that it has made in the WTO.

Canada has asked the World Trade Organization to resolve a trade dispute with the U.S. over country-of-origin labelling rules that discourage cattle and hog imports, the federal government announced Wednesday, October 7th 2009. It has asked a WTO trade dispute panel to strike down the rules on the grounds they make it difficult for Canadian cattle and hog exporters to compete fairly. Canada's beef industry estimates changing the labelling rule would could save Canadian cattle exporters $1 million a day.

Recently, the UnitedStates formally filed two WTO complaints against China over so-called copyright piracy and restrictions on the sale of American books, music, videos and movies. WTO dispute settlement procedures stipulate 60 days for consultations between the United States and China. If the consultations fail, the United States could ask for a WTO panel to investigate and rule on the dispute.

贸易关税-Trade Tariffs

There are several types of tariffs and barriers that a government can employ:

Graph showing percentage of world trade in goods by partnerSpecific tariffs

Ad valorem tariffs

Licenses

Import quotas

Voluntary export restraints

Local content requirements

Products such as Tobacco, Liquor and pure perfume are classified as Duty free items. All other items are classed as tax free. If you are flying within the European Union, for example from Holland to England, you are entitled to Tax Free prices on fragrances, cosmetics and skincare; photographic and electrical goods; fashion and accessories; gifts, jewellery and souvenirs. There are no longer any allowance restrictions on these Tax Free items.

When travelling from the EU* to the UK you do not have to pay any tax or duty on goods you have bought in another EU country as long as tax was included in the price when you purchased the items, the items are for your own use, and have been transported to the UK by you.

The benefits of tariffs are uneven. Becausea tariff is a tax, the government will see increased revenue as imports enter the domestic market.

The effect of tariffs and trade barriers on businesses, consumers and the government shifts over time. In the short run, higher prices for goods can reduce consumption by individual consumers and by businesses. During this time period, businesses will profit and the government will see an increase in revenue from duties. In the long term, businesses may see a decline in efficiency due to a lack of competition, and may also see a reduction in profits due to the emergence of substitutes to their products.

Tariffs increase the prices of imported goods. Because of this, domestic producers are not forced to reduce their prices from increased competition, and domestic consumers are left paying higher prices as a result. Tariffs also reduce efficiencies by allowing companies that would not exist in a more competitive market to remain open.

The European Union is the world's biggest trader, accounting for nearly 20% of global imports and exports. The Union has granted duty-free or cut-rate access to its market for most of the imports from developing countries under its generalised system of preferences (GSP). It goes even further for the world's 49 poorest countries, all of whose exports - with the sole exception of arms - enter the EU duty-free.

The disappearance of trade barriers within the EU made a significant contribution to its prosperity and has reinforced its commitment to global liberalisation. As EU countries removed tariffs on trade between them, they also unified their tariffs on goods imported from outside.

This means that products pay the same tariff whether they enter the EU via the ports of Genoa or Hamburg. As a result, a car from Japan which pays import duty on arrival in Germany can be shipped to Belgium or Poland and sold there in the same way as a German car. No further duty is charged.

On July 1, 1999 changes to the Duty-Free and Tax-Free laws that apply to European Union countries came into effect. However, you can still buy a wide range of Duty and Tax-Free goods when you travel abroad. If you are flying outside the European Union you are entitled to your full allowance of goods at Tax and Duty Free prices.

The EU is the world's largest importer of textiles and clothing products together with the US. In 1999, the value of imports amounted to over € 59.3 billion.

EU is also proposing that all WTO Members agree to deeper cuts for textiles, clothing, and footwear, with a view to bringing these tariffs within a narrow common range as close to zero as possible. This would also require that non-tariff barriers are substantially reduced and all export restrictions on raw materials are removed.

Taiwan will join the United States and Japan in filing a complaint under the World Trade Organization's framework over a tariff dispute with the European Union, press reports said. Taiwan plans to pursue the WTO case to force the EU to eliminate tariffs on certain information technology (IT) products.

Explain what differences in technical standards might mean for a company involved in international trade

Technical standards are requirements for admission of a product or service. Companys and manufacturers must be aware of these standards as they must meet these requirements in order to sell it.

The letters 'CE' on a product is a manufacturer's claim that their product meets the requirements of all relevant European Directives.

CE marking on a product:

Indicates to governments that the product can be legally sold within the European Union (EU) and the European Free Trade Area (EFTA)

Ensures the product can move freely throughout the European Single Market

Indicates to customers that the product meets designated minimum safety standards and therefore a minimum level of quality

Promotes public health and safety

Enhances product credibility

Leads to improved sales and greater customer satisfaction

Founded in 1918, ANSI is a voluntary organization composed of over 1,300 members (including all the large computer companies) that creates standards for the computer industry. ANSI is a private non-profit organization that oversees the development of voluntary consensus standards for products, services, processes, systems, and personnel in the United States.

The restriction of imports into a country by government measures reasons for protectionism

Reasons for protectionism

Protects UK businesses from extra competition

Helps new UK businesses to develop before they face competition

Helps protect UK jobs

Prevents foreign countries 'dumping' lots of cheap imports into the UK

Prevents imports of harmful or desirable goods

Benefits of free trade and trade barriers

Protectionism keepsUK firms away from genuine competition. They may become lazy and inefficient

Free trade forces UK firms to produce quality goods and services as they face much foreign competition

If the UK puts up trade barriers then other countries are likely to retaliate.

Free trade encourages firms to export and import. This should encourage a greater choice for consumers and a higher standard of living

Trade barriers increase the cost of trading. For example, a tariff would mean that UK firms and consumers may have to pay more for imports of raw materials or consumer goods

There are many attractions to international trade. The general concept has been that bigger the international trade coverage better market opportunity. Having broad-based trade and the ability provide value added services and products will result in high demand and increased profit.With the availability of advanced technology, improved transportation and communication facilities the world has become smaller, distance between countries have reduced making them closer more than ever before.

A Firm could enter in to any market if they were similar in terms of their characteristics such as cultural and religious beliefs, consumer behaviour, customer needs and wants, tastes, product usage, and government rules and regulation, etc.

After their huge success in Asian countries, Pepsi launched similar campaign inRussia. Pepsi was able to overcome all the cultural barriers and reach 280 million of Russian market

One example of a cultural barrier that England face in international trade is usually the language. Understanding of a foreign language and their processes may still not be able to close the gap in cultural differences.

For example in United States or many western countries it is normal to use a very casual form of English.Such as slang and shortened words are acceptable not only in everyday language but in formal occasions and business settings. Other countries such as Japanese culture is different,

Another example of a cultural difference is we look at the difference between Christian and Muslim countries. These differences will be noticeable in a variety of ways such as the portrayal of masculinity or femininity and the role of the genders in many societies, This may mean that the actual target groups to which a product needs to be marked may be different from one market to another. For example restaurants will need to consider those who do not eat pork due to religious reasons.

This may mean that the entire marketing concept may need to be changed, as the target group may need to be reformulated as well as the social differences needing to be amended for the marketplace.

There are many different aspects that need to be considered when it comes to marketing. These include the use of brands and marketing, market placement of goods, and the larger barriers such as international and local trade laws. The development of branding is one area that has gained attention in international marketing.

There are many examples of branding that has operated successfully with similar images that are designed to be culturally generic, such as Pepsi-Cola inUnited StatesandJapan, where there have been a huge success.

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