Classification and control of pressure--essay代写范文

51Due论文代写平台essay代写范文:“Classification and control of pressure”，这篇论文主要描述的是在现代的社会生活当中，压力成为了人们生活中不可避免的一部分，有不少的人长期处于压力的困扰之下，我们能够从酗酒、暴力倾向、自杀、抑郁等方面看出，压力能够分为生理与心理两部分，如果不能够妥善的处理好压力，会对个人的消极的负面影响。

Stress is a natural part of human life, it is the bodys instinctual reaction, from thousands of years of evolution, to the many stressors in our everyday environment. The high rates of stress involved in policing lead to physical and mental issues including alcoholism, severe depression, domestic abuse, and/or suicide. Stress can be positive, negative, direct, or indirect. An example of positive stress could be pressure to perform that could be used as motivation to achieve a goal. Negative stress could be discovering that a close relative or family member has died. Direct stress involves the individual directly, such as a personal feud.

Indirect stress does not directly involve the person, for example, terrorism against the United States indirectly adds stress to Americans traveling by plane. Stress comes from internal factors and external factors as well. An example of internal factors would be something administrative, or anything within the department, usually out of the officer's control. External factors are things outside of the job, it could be societal expectations or their gender role. Whether positive or negative, internal or external, it is vital that the strain is handled in a positive matter for both the individual and their surrounding environment. 'We also know that stress, particularly when it becomes chronic, can lead to a multiplicity of problems for the officers as well as for the organization they work for' (Anderson et al., 2002, p. 2).

Everyone experiences stress at different levels, depending on various factors such as economic status, occupation, gender roles, societal expectations, and ethnicity. Individuals employed with law enforcement are likely to suffer higher levels of stress than other occupations. 'Policing has been identified as one of those particularly stressful occupations, with law enforcement work being ranked among the top five most stressful occupations worldwide' (Noblet et al., 2009, p. 2). It does not help that societal expectations place law enforcement under an unrealistic amount of pressure, causing high levels of stress to perform. 'This is a profession in which officers are sometimes unrealistically expected to be unemotional and composed at all times' (Vonk, 2008, p. 1).

Police, unlike other occupations, are involved with disturbingly graphic incidents such as fatal car crashes, shootings, rapes, and murders. Their lives are constantly threatened by criminals, high speed car chases, and other standards of the job. 'In sum, police officers must be good psychologists...face troubled individuals who may try to kill thema€|and must be aware of the possibility that there are phantom assailants who are not immediately visible' (Waters & Williams, 2007, p.2). There are multiple programs put in place to help the officer cope with their personal issues in a positive and healthy manner. Unfortunately, some police use negative coping methods such as drinking, domestic violence, and/or suicide, hurting themselves and those around them. By understanding what causes stress and how the body reacts, in both male and female officers, it will be much easier to create effective programs that help officers cope with their issues experienced from the norms of their job.

研究方法-Research Methods

The purpose of this paper is to examine what causes stress and how it negatively effects those in law enforcement, particularly police officers. Luckily, there have been many studies conducted about stress and policing. To find research, most information was provided through online academic and scholarly article search engines such as EBSCO and ProQuest. Key words such as 'police stress', 'stress and policing' or 'police stress and alcohol' narrowed the results even further. After reading each source, gathering ideas and backing it up with scholarly evidence followed. Each academic source performed its own study which helped to back up the information. Otherwise, there are numerous books and studies that could have been used as reference.

原因-Causes

Police officers face higher than normal amounts of stress in their everyday lives. Regardless of agency size or service area, all law enforcement officers are subject to gross amounts of stress from nearly the moment they enter the profession (Lindsey & Kelly, 2004, p. 2). Strain is caused by various situations faced in the work environment:

'Prior research on stress often suggests that police officers face a work environment that is commonly depicted as one of the most stressful occupations because officers can encounter violent criminals and crime scenes during the course of their daily work. Additionally, the police possess a great amount of discretion that requires them to make tough decisions about arresting certain individuals or even using deadly force. Furthermore, the nature of law enforcement organization is often identified as a primary source of work related stress in that it is characterized by impersonal rules and a rigid chain of command' (McCarty et al., 2007, p. 1).

It is interesting to also look at this in terms of evolution, going back to the days of the cave man. When faced with these various intimidating and sometimes life-threatening situations, the body automatically responds with the fight or flight response. 'From an evolutionary perspective, this allowed individuals to have the energy to stand their ground and defend themselves (fight) or to remove themselves from danger (flight)' (Anderson, Litzenberger, & Plecas, 2002, p. 2). Under normal situations faced by a police officer, most individuals would flee. As a sworn officer, it is their job to put their life on the line and fight, putting enormous amounts of strain on the individual. There is also a physical and emotional conflict that occurs. 'Under highly emotional circumstances, officers must exercise extreme restraint when excited, they must remain calm, when nervous, they must demonstrate their command of the situation; when in a highly emotional state, they must remain stoic' (Lindsey & Kelly, 2004, p. 2) New police are put through rigorous training that subconsciously teaches them to fight their natural instincts to flee. There are many causes of police stress but through examination, programs can be created to help alleviate the strain through healthy methods.

Most strain is created from the individuals pressure put on by themselves. Even before an individual is hired by a department, they have to pass both a mental and physical test. Because of budget cuts and the scarce job market, an individual has to compete with hundreds of others for only a few available positions. After completing the physical portion, the individual has to take an exam comprised of hundreds of questions that basically ask the same question but in a different wording. Having to take time off from their current job to train and take these tests, along with waiting for the results, which can take months, puts a lot of pressure on some people. Besides the pressure to perform, their discrepancy adds a lot of pressure. An officer has to decide whether or not to enforce the law in certain situations. If they decide to exercise their power, they have to worry about their reputation with the city and fellow officers. For example, if they pull over more blacks than whites, they might be considered racist, even if it is not true. Also, most people who get into the career of law enforcement are very competitive so there is the constant, sometimes hostile, unsaid feelings involved with competition. Pride is another major issue because the officer may be too proud to ask for help. Officers endure rigorous training and are forced to memorize various codes, policies, and procedures. If an officer makes a mistake, pride can get in the way. This puts the individual, fellow officers, and the general public at risk for harm.

Some of the negative stress is from influences outside of the officers control. 'Some experts argue that police stress usually can be found in external stressors creating frustration with a lenient criminal justice system, internal stressors created by the police organization itself, task-related stressors including role-conflicts, and other cumulative stressors' (Stevens, 1999, p. 2). It would be very disappointing to catch a criminal after months of hard work, only to have them leniently sentenced by the criminal justice system. It would decrease feelings of self worth and ultimately ruin confidence in their beliefs. If they do not believe in themselves or their job, the officer would have to deal with burnout, highly decreasing their performance which also puts others at risk.

Another aggravating factor could be from the department itself. Administrative policy constantly has to deal with budget cuts and a higher demand to perform. Officers are forced to do a better job with less or lower grade equipment. After completing a job, they have a ton of paperwork to fill out, with the additional stress of needing to make sure the paperwork will hold up in a court of law. It doesn't help that there are constant shift changes, long hours, and little pay for those hours. There is a higher demand to perform while in a sleepy, less attentive state of mind. 'The source of their dissatisfaction was largely due to a distrust of the management who lead them and the public who bleed them, discretionary powers dwarfed by mountains of redundant reform and training programs incompatible with realities of the 21st century' (Stevens, 1999, p. 2). Role conflict also poses a problem, Jaramillo's research, (2005) found a story of a man who was punished for holding an umbrella while helping an elderly woman who had fallen. Holding an umbrella while in uniform was against policy, but he was doing his public service, conflicting his internal and external policies. Besides dealing with the administration, officers have to deal with their coworkers who are also under high stress.

Group cohesion is very important, especially in a job where you have to mutually trust another person with your life. 'Charismatic and transformati1onal leadership theories suggest that employees who work under the supervision of supportive as opposed to non-supportive and inflexible leaders often have positive attitudes towards their jobs' (Jaramillo et al., 2005, p. 4). A strong and positive group helps to increase morale, and provides confidence amongst each other. 'Noteworthy is the face that job satisfaction is the strongest predictors of organizational commitment' (Jaramillo et al., 2005, p. 4). A cohesive group will also make the individual more likely to want to work, and their work will be more productive, benefiting the officer and his community.

男职员V女职员-Male v Female Officers

It is important to examine both male and female officers separately because each gender faces their own set of issues. 'Women police officers' stress, therefore, may be predicted by a set of problems in the workplace that are not predictive of men's stress' (Morash, Kwak, & Haarr, 2006, p. 2). By studying both males and females, programs can better help police deal with their stress and avoid occupational 'burnout'. 'Maslach defines burnout as a syndrome comprising emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, and reduced sense of personal accomplishment that often develops among individuals who do people work' (Johnson, Todd, & Subramanian, 2005, p. 6).

Initially, women suffer the strain of being classified as a 'policeman', working in a male dominated field. Some females also feel the need to prove their worth in order to gain respect with the men, putting extra pressure on themselves. Both genders face strain from the norms of the job but females are constantly harassed by gender discrimination. 'a€|female officers may be subjected to gender discrimination from male officers and supervisors. Female officers felt that their male partners provided inadequate backup and questioned their abilities' In fact, 'research in other organizational contexts has shown that women consistently report higher levels of psychological and physical stress than their male coworkers' (McCarty et al., 2007, p. 3). It is important to discriminate against women, it will eventually cause problems internally and externally.

Police departments must deal with gender issues very carefully. The political part of the administration will greatly affect the department's budget and will highly influence citizens when voting to raise the budget. If a female worker feels sexually harassed, she can sue which leads to stress throughout the entire division. This will give the male officers a bad reputation from other female officers and the local citizens. If serious enough, a few officers may even be forced to leave their job. It is important to analyze both male and female police.

影响:身体、情感和行为-Effects: Physical, Emotional, and Behavioral

Physical

Police officers are highly susceptible to a multitude of physical issues. Officers have to worry about physical problems caused by criminals and internalized stress. '...what most law enforcement officers do not understand is the enormous destructive, if not deadly, physiological (internal) effect of stress on the human body' (Lindsey & Kelly, 2004, p. 2). They are always at risk from gunshot wounds, car accidents during a high speed chase, knives, and any other weapon used against them. More alarming is the stress that comes from the inability to cope with their issues. '(Research) also found that officers experiences increased risk of mortality and morbidity from cancer, heart disease, hypertension, acute migraine headaches, reproductive problems, chronic back problems, foot problems, and insomnia' (Harpold & Feemster, 2002, p. 3). There are also problems involving the gastrointestinal tract, digestive system, liver, kidneys, and basically any other internal part of the body. Police also have to worry about exposure to chemicals from gun cleaning solvents, materials on the highway, drugs found at crime scenes, and blood borne pathogens found on victims. A study by Dennis Lindsey and Sean Kelly (2004) actually found that 'the life expectancy in the United States is 74.4 years for men and 80.1 years for women. In a 40-year study, police officers with 10 to 19 years of service had an average age of death of 66 years'. The internal and external stressors of the job are literally killing them from the inside.

Emotional

Dealing with constant strain, officers are at a much higher risk for various emotional issues such as depression and other mental problems. 'Results indicated that exposure to multiple negative life events is significantly associated with elevated depression scores in officers' (Violanti et al., 2009, p. 2). They are constantly under pressure to perform, by societal and personal expectations. If an officer fails at a task, they may become emotionally compromised, severely affecting their work. 'When a police officer, having sworn an oath to protect society, fails in her duty-or perceives herself as a failure-she suffers grievous injury to her sense of identity and worth and becomes unable to function effectively in our society' (Brosnan, 1999, p. 1). It is important to remember that police are human, just like the rest of us. 'Human biology cannot be overcome; the emotional energy that officers hold in over a period of years on the job will take its toll' (Lindsey & Kelly, 2004, p. 2). After awhile, officers will begin to show no emotion. Through training and constantly dealing with criminals or the general public, police learn to show no emotion. They have to or else it can cost them their lives, the stress is internalized which kills them from the inside.

Behavioral

It is very likely that an officer will show behavioral changes throughout his career. Some will positively benefit, but others will be much less emotional and change completely. 'Without a healthy outlet for dealing with these stress-related issues, an officer may become cynical, impatient, violent toward others as well as him/herself, unhealthy, and/or suicidal' Macmillan, 2009, p. 1). Experienced officers learn to hide their feelings and become completely unemotional. 'Obviously, the inherent nature of police work precludes the immediate discharge of emotions' (Waters & William, 2007, p. 3). They will also become more aggressive and dominating over any situation, constantly feeling the need to be in control, even when something is out of their control. 'Police culture leads officers to believe that they are a special population that has superhuman abilities and no weaknesses...when actually they are particularly vulnerable due to their need for constant vigilance' (Waters & William, 2007, p. 4). Stress has an enormous impact on an officers individual outlook, usually causing him to distance himself from his family.

消极的应对方法:酗酒,家庭暴力,创伤后应激障碍和自杀-Negative Coping Methods: Alcohol Abuse, Domestic Violence, PTSD, and Suicide

Alcohol/Substance Abuse

Some police officers who have a hard time dealing with their feelings, individually or when reaching out for help, use alcohol to cope with their problems. 'In 1996 more than 100 members of New York City Police Department were dismissed for violating department policies regarding drug use and about another 70 officers were arrested for alcohol-related offenses' (Brosnan, 1999, p. 3). It does not help that the social stigma for police is either alcoholics or 'wife beaters'. This gives police a bad reputation and almost encourages the unhealthy act, giving police the excuse that they are living up to their societal expectations. 'Nordlicht and Malcolm contend that hard drinking off the job is the norm for many police officers, and the most serious results of police work stress is alcoholism' (Leanor, Todd, & Subramanian, 2005, p. 7). Most feel that alcohol is primarily used to help with the feeling of internal anger or guilt, memories of horrific encounters, and other negative influences. Narcotics abuse is also very high, police are constantly dealing with mind-altering substances, and there is constant temptation. 'A positive correlation has been found between exposure to psychic trauma and substance abuse, confirming that substance are abused in an attempt to relieve stress' (Brosnan, 1999, p. 2). Unfortunately, alcohol and substance abuse has a high association with violence and anger displacement.

Domestic Violence

Police are trained to be aggressive and to dominate their situation. If faced with opposition, most police will use force or verbal commands to control others. It is hard for some people to separate work from their daily lives. 'In fact, in Johnson's study (1991) the most frequent complaint among the 728 officers and 479 spouses was the officers' inability to leave the job at work' (Johnson, Todd, and Subramanian, 2005, p. 6,7). This aggression, usually mixed with alcohol or narcotics, could sometimes be misplaced, usually onto their families. 'There were a number of both critical incident and general and work stressors linked to the outcome of officers abusing their own children and/or a lack of parental affection for their own children' (Stevens, 1999, p. 3). If the officer did not end up divorcing or separating from their significant other, there was a much higher, than normal, chance of spousal abuse. The displacement of anger, or sometimes referred to as authoritarian spillover, also lead to other issues such as extra marital affairs. Stress and policing affects much more than the individual, it has negative consequences on everyone around them.

Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)

Similar to war veterans coming ho

me, police officers also suffer from posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). PTSD is highly prevalent in police culture and has very serious short and long-term side effects.

'Post-traumatic stress theory suggests that unexpected and sudden events or long-term exposure to extraordinary events, that is, those having the potential to cause or threaten death or serious disability to self or others, can result in short-term psycho-physiological responses (e.g., nausea, bowel release, fainting, hyperventilation) and long term effects (chronic anxiety, mood disorders, insomnia, emotional numbness)' (Johnson, Todd, & Subramanian, 2005, p. 5).

Treating PTSD is usually very costly and timely, with rare success. Police are highly susceptible to developing it. 'Researchers have found that 13 to 35 percent of all police officers suffer from PTSD as its symptoms are defined by the American Psychiatric Association- far greater than the 1 percent in the general population' (Brosnan, 1999, p. 1). This disorder could develop from a variety of things: having to kill someone, seeing someone killed, and dealing with victims whose bodies are grossly displayed and deteriorating. Post-traumatic stress victims recurrently relive the causal event through dreams and their daily life. Something as simple as a conversation between friends, and certain sounds can trigger intense feelings from the past. 'The victim experiences recurrent or intrusive recollections of the traumatic events as thoughts, images, or perceptions...from sensory cues (internal or external) that resemble or symbolize the traumatic event' (Brosnan, 1999, p. 1).

Suicide

When stress becomes too much for an individual to handle, some choose to take their lives. 'A study of police suicide conducted by the Fraternal Order of Police in 1995 concluded that the police suicide rate nationwide is 22 in 100,000 officers (compared with 12 in 100,000 for all Americans' (Brosnan, 1999, p. 3). This is devastating to the community and especially the family that was left behind. It emotionally and financially hurts the entire community. Other police officers are faced with the reality that they have considered it themselves. Most officers will deny it was the job to preserve their mental health, but subconsciously they will know that the job caused it. Partners will feel guilty because of their 'blue wall of silence'. 'You see someone who needs help and in your heart you know he is not ok. But, we are trained not to push it further. The blue wall of silence has allowed officers to spiral down' (Perin, 2007, p. 2). It Families will have to survive with one less persons salary, even though the police salary was not much. It is a very serious issue that happens too often. 'The National P.O.L.I.C.E Suicide Foundation currently projects an officer kills him or herself every 17 hours' (Perin, 2007, p. 1) It is also important to look for suicide ideation, the thought and/or planning of suicide. 'Suicide ideation is a form of suicidal behavior and places a person at greater risk for suicide' (Violanti et al., 2009, p. 2). Police are under enormous stress and constantly have access to a firearm, these two factors could be very devastating.

积极的应对方法-Positive Coping Methods

Everyone experiences and deals with stress differently, so it is important to treat everyone in an individual manner. For example, small town police may feel more stress than larger police departments because chances are higher that they personally know their victims or criminals, and if they need backup, it may be miles away. Also, because it is a small town community, everyone knows them and where they reside, personal issues will make the job much more difficult. Various programs need to focus on physical and mental health, it can mean the difference between life and death. 'There are numerous reasons why police departments should maintain (programs): they provide confidential and specialized treatment, raise morale, increase the departments efficiency and effectiveness, reduce early retirement or quitting, lessen workers' compensation claims related to stress, and improve general well-being of the officer and their families' (MacMillan, 2009, p. 1) There are many programs that are currently in place, such as the Law Enforcement Assistance and Development Program (LEAD), but they need to be re-examined. Most police departments offer some type of therapy through either internal or external methods. Internal and external methods rarely work because individuals who need help are worried that the therapist will report their case to the rest of the department, making them look weak or inferior. Because of the unsaid blue wall of silence, it will be hard to get officers to open up, so departments and families need to do a better job encouraging the use of these different programs.

Societal and family intervention can be the difference between life and death. If a family starts to notice major differences, help should be found immediately. '...anyone of importance in the officer's life must have an understanding of what an officer deals with on a daily basis and know how to get them to open up' (Perin, 2007, p. 4). The community needs to feel comfortable reporting what they see. The department can offer healthy alternatives which indirectly encourage positive coping. Having an open gym, and mandatory classes on health can highly reduce the impact of stress and policing. Also, having these programs in place will require additional employees, justifying extra budget space. If volunteer workers come in to help, it will increase ties with the local community and boost group morale. Working on communication will highly increase team efficiency, this can easily be done through peer counseling, or mandatory weekly meetings. It will encourage the idea of sharing feelings which can literally help save lives and reduce victimization from anger or guilt displacement. It will ensure officer safety in smaller departments who sometimes need to request back up from a nearby department. Also, it will increase group cohesion because the group will get to know each other better. Group cohesion also includes an officer and his family, by making family counseling available, domestic violence is highly reduced.

Having excellent physical health can make a huge difference for a police officer. 'Choosing to be healthy is the best weapon against the negative influences of stress. Once a commitment is made to fight back against the negative factors of stress, life becomes healthier and more enjoyable' (Harpold & Samuel, 2002, p. 5). Having various exercise programs, meditation/ relaxation programs, and classes about nutrition will create a more efficient and healthy department. Working out will increase positive brain chemicals and heighten the officers chance of achievingtheir goal. 'An exercise routine not only releases endorphins on a regular basis, but also improves skill level and confidence. Appropriate body weight allows for efficiency of movement in emergency situations' (Vonk, 2008, p. 4). Kathleen Vonk's study (2008) also reports better muscle reaction and relaxation, less injury, and a stronger cardiovascular system. Better nutrition knowledge and practice will provide the proper carbohydrates to perform better physically, and the key nutrients will help make decisions more smoothly. Something as little as providing heart monitors can help raise health awareness. Programs such as the Individual Zones of Optimal Functioning (IZOF) also help figure out each individuals top performance levels. '...personality characteristics, maturity level, trait anxiety, state anxiety, coping skills, task complexity, and skill proficiency all play a part in determining one's performance levels and optimal zones' (Vonk, 2008, p. 3). There are many programs available to police departments, but we need to make sure we are recognizing those who need help.

By recognizing stress and learning how to deal with it, we can prevent a lot of issues. More importantly, counselors and other support members need to intervene if they notice multiple signs of leakage. If preventative measures are not taken, it can lead to casualties and multiple law suits. Programs need to make sure that they address all issues that encompass stress and policing: financial services, domestic violence counseling, alcohol and narcotic use/dependency counseling, legal sendees, and child/ elderly options. 'It is fair to say that human service issues in our society tend to wait for victims rather than prevent them...' (Stevens, 1999, p. 5). The easiest way to reduce stress would be working with the officers directly, noticing any odd behavior, and simply intervening.

结论-onclusion

It is hard enough for the average person to deal with the stresses of everyday life but police also have to cope with constant traumatic situations. It is important to remember that 'each person responds differently to internal and external demands of life, but that each person does experience stress' (Harpold & Feemster, 2002, p. 2) Dealing with internal, external, direct and indirect strain for a menial paycheck, stress causes police to unfortunately cope through various negative methods: alcohol abuse, domestic violence, and suicide. Different programs have been created to help officers treat their issues, but internal and external influences need to better the programs because they are not working. 'Stress is unavoidable in our modern society.

Given its invasive presence in the workplace, literally hundreds of publications including books, technical reports, research publications, and dissertations have addressed the causes of work stressa€|' (Jaramillo et al., 2005, p. 1). There is too much pressure on police to perform, we train them to show no emotion, and fight their instincts to run. When they do not achieve their goals, there is reprimand from higher authorities and an immense amount of pressure put on the individual by himself. When they do achieve their goals, there is either little or no reward, and there heroics or only mentioned if it is worth hearing about. 'The mass media images of police officers, outside of dramatic accounts of dangerous rescues and heroic responses to disasters, tends to focus on stories that will engage readers and sell newspapers' (Waters & William, 2007, p. 2). Since readers are more interested in hearing about corrupt cops and stories about excessive use of force, police are under societies constant watch. Society stigmatizes police as raging alcoholics and family abusers, almost encouraging police to live up to their 'expectations'. Police feel that they cannot reach out for help, they are idolized as emotionless beings who can overcome any adversity. If they ask for help, they are considered weak by the public and their peers. Sometimes, this stress has created so much pressure that the individual takes their own life.

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