Origin of the Hypothesis--论文代写范文精选

CE似乎是自适应,因为它支撑复杂的语言和非语言交流,一般社会专业知识提供了一个基础,帮助具体行为和团队凝聚力。下面的essay代写范文进行阐述。

Abstract
The EIH of autism originates from a theoretical approach to the mental relationship between CE and EE (Smith, 2006). I argued that natural selection probably acted on variation in the relationship between CE and EE during human evolution. Imagine a population in which each individual has a capacity for both CE and EE and in which the relationship between the two capacities varies from individual to individual. Natural selection will act on the relationship between CE and EE if the variation has a slight genetic basis and makes a slight contribution to differential survival and reproduction. Tiny selective advantages can result in evolutionary change (Pinker & Bloom, 1992).

Davis (1996) considered the evolutionary origins of empathy and concluded that “affective responsivity [EE] may have evolved as a mechanism for producing self-sacrificing behavior, while role-taking [CE] might have evolved to allow more successful competition with one’s primate peers” (p. 45). CE appears to be adaptive because it underpins sophisticated verbal and nonverbal communication, Machiavellian intelligence, general social expertise, and parenting skills. EE provides a basis for social bonding, parent– offspring bonding, helping behavior, and group cohesion. 

I suggested that it is functional for a human to be able to use CE without EE, to use EE without or before CE, and to use CE and EE in an integrated way (Smith, 2006). (For example, exploiting, deceiving, and harming other people may simultaneously require the use of CE and the inhibition of EE. Parental responses to distressed children may be motivated by direct EE that precedes CE. General prosocial behavior may be facilitated by balanced empathy.) These empathic options are available if CE and EE are separable, complementary systems. With this relationship, the two empathic capacities can influence, balance, and regulate each other while retaining a significant degree of independence. The same range of empathic options is not available if CE and EE are, for example, inseparable or if one system is dependent on the other. 

It seems likely that separability of CE and EE was selected for during hominid evolution and that this relationship is evolutionarily stable. One way to test the hypothesis that CE and EE are separable systems is to look for the potential empathy disorders that are consistent with such a relationship. I predicted the existence of four developmental empathy disorders: (a) CE deficit disorder (low CE ability combined with high EE sensitivity), (b) EE deficit disorder (low EE sensitivity combined with high CE ability), (c) general empathy deficit disorder (low CE ability and low EE sensitivity), and (d) general empathy surfeit disorder (high CE ability and high EE sensitivity). I hypothesized that these four disorders tend to be part of (1) autism, (2) antisocial personality disorder, (3) schizoid personality disorder (and some cases of autism spectrum disorder), and (4) Williams syndrome, respectively. Williams syndrome is a neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by intellectual deficits, linguistic skill, hypersociability, and concern for others. （essay代写)

People with schizoid personality disorder are solitary individuals who unintentionally disregard social norms and appear to lack empathy. Schizoid personality disorder, unlike schizotypal personality disorder, is not closely related to the positive symptoms of schizophrenia and can resemble Asperger syndrome. According to this approach, autism and antisocial personality disorder are opposite empathy imbalance disorders. This deduction partially corresponds to recent interpretations of the empirical literature. HansmanWijnands and Hummelen (2006) highlighted the fact that empathy deficit is a core symptom of both autism and antisocial personality disorder. They suggested that autism involves a CE deficit but antisocial personality disorder involves an EE deficit. Similarly, Robbins and Jack (2006) concluded that “as far as lack of the two kinds of empathy is concerned, autism and psychopathy [antisocial personality disorder] are complementary disorders” (p. 68). Blair (2005) argued that individuals with autism have deficits in CE but less clear deficits in EE. He also argued that individuals with antisocial personality disorder have a deficit in a specific form of EE (i.e., responsiveness to others’ distress cues) but no deficit in CE. 

However, in Smith (2006), the predicted EE deficit in antisocial personality disorder is not specific to distress cues but includes reduced sensitivity to the happiness of others. Furthermore, in my framework, a lack of one kind of empathy can be accompanied by an excess of the other kind of empathy. I also suggested that the CE and EE systems of males have greater separability than those of females and that empathy imbalance disorders are thus more likely to develop in males than in females. (Greater separability of the empathy systems would give males more scope to use CE in an emotionally detached and competitive way. Lesser separability of the empathy systems might facilitate nurturing and social bonding.) There is evidence that people with antisocial personality disorder have strong CE ability (Blair et al., 1996; Richell et al., 2003) but low sensitivity to others’ distress (Blair, Jones, Clark, & Smith, 1997) and happiness (Deeley et al., 2006). Recent research also seems to confirm that a minority of people diagnosed with Asperger syndrome are callous and have both a CE deficit and a substantial EE deficit (Rogers, Viding, Blair, Frith, & Happe, 2006). In the next section of this article, I elaborate on the EIH of autism and focus on the counterintuitive possibility that most people with autism have a heightened capacity for direct EE.（essay代写)

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