The Contribution of Society to the Construction of Individual Intelligence--论文代写范文精选

社会形势可能会对个人的发展至关重要。这催生了整个领域的研究，基于这样一个前提，社会环境的调查和抽样被称为八卦。我们的社会环境,追求一些特定的目标而不是试图发现普遍的真理。下面的essay代写范文继续详述。

Abstract 
It is argued that society is a crucial factor in the construction of individual intelligence. In other words that it is important that intelligence is socially situated in an analogous way to the physical situation o f r obots. Evidence that t his may b e the ca se is taken from developmental linguistics, the social intelligence hypothesis, the complexity of society, the need for self-reflection and autism. The c onsequences for the development of artificial social agents is briefly considered. Finally some c hallenges for r esearch into socially situated intelligence are highlighted. 
Keywords: society, intelligence, language, reflection, evolution, development

Introduction 
Several studies of how individual intelligences can interact to allow the emergence of social structures exist. The field of Artificial Life teems with computational models composed o f interacting un its where it i s claimed that even a modicum of ‘intelligence’ ( in the form of some c omputational capacity) can result i n the emergence of phenomena more usually attributed to societies. These studies are focused on the basic model that interacting units cause society. In the following we refer to this as ‘approach A’. What i s rarer ( especially ou tside the domains of sociology and linguistics) are investigations into the possibility that society is a causal factor in the emergence of individual intelligence in the individuals it is composed of (approach B). 

To researchers accustomed to thinking along approach A, this may seem a little strange: for society is obviously physically composed of individuals and not the other way around. However in one supremely important respect the matter is already all but settled: humans need o ther humans to interact with if they are to acquire a fully functional l anguage, and they n eed a fully functional l anguage to realise much o f their potential i ntelligence 1 . The lack o f a fully functional l anguage does not only limit an individual’s s ocial i ntelligence, but it also limits that i ndividual’s general problem-solving ability, for example, it i s inconceivable that a human without mastery of a sophisticated language could perform abstract mathematics2 . This paper examines possibility B. Section 2 examines the a nalogy with the discovery of the importance of the physical situation in robotics. Section 3 looks at some reasons why we would expect that the social situation might be critical for the development of individual (human) intelligence. Section 4 d iscusses s ome of the consequences for the development of artificial social agents if this does turn out to be the case and section 5concludes with a plea for more research on this topic.

The physical situation compared to the social situation 
When Brooks [8] made his now famous critique of AI ( as it was then) he was specifically addressing shortcomings with respect to the problem of getting robots to master a physical environment. This spawned a whole field of research based on the premise that t he physical situation was critically important i n the design o f agents (and in particular robots). Three c ritical aspects of being ‘physically situated’ are listed b elow, each h as an analog for the social situation. 1. Frequent probing and sensing – that t he a gent uses the frequent probing and sensing o f its environment t o d etermine its s tates and p rocesses rather than attempting to use explicit models and inferential processes to predict these. The frequent probing and sampling of the social environment of a human is called ‘gossip’. On the whole we do no t t ry and p redict t he details of our social environment, instead we trade information about it as frequently as we can. 2. Goal directed, interactive learning – that m uch learning o ccurs in a practical interactive way in the pursuit of some specific goal rather than trying to discover general truths in a passive deductive way.

The methodology o f Embodied Artificial Intelligence (EAI) approach which h as influenced research into robotics and adaptive systems has according to Erich Prem [36] a number of implications for cognitive science: “Cognition is a timely process driven by forces internal and external t o the system, cognition h appens in close interaction with the world, often in o rder to manipulate the world.” [36]. If we replace ‘world’ by ‘social world’ then Prem's citation relates nicely to our notion of socially situated intelligence. For an embodied agent situatedness in the world matters, as for a social agent situatedness in the social world matters. A stronger claim, for which evidence is increasing bu t not yet sufficient, is that human intelligence (e.g. problem-solving abilities) has evolved in evolutionary terms literally as a side-effect of social i ntelligence (cf. our discussion on autism and the social intelligence hypothesis in this paper). Thus, research into socially situated intelligent, e.g. studying simulation models of human interactions/societies, or building embodied artifacts like robots, can p rovide valuable input t o this discussion. We almost never learn about our social environment i n a passive, detached way bu t through constant interaction with it in order to achieve our social (and other) goals.

See our discussion on the social intelligence hypothesis in section 3.2 and autism in section 3.5. 3. Specific adaptions – many adaptions in a successful situated agent are very specific to the particular environment t he a gent occupies, exploiting its features for efficiency and effectiveness. Humans have many adaptions that are considered as specifically social in their utility. These include: our linguistic ability; the whites of our eyes; our ability to recognise individual faces; our enjoyment of gossip; our elaborated sexuality; t he expressiveness of our f aces in d isplaying emotions; our ability to empathise with others; and ou r apparent predisposition towards accepting no rms and cooperation. Thus humans are socially situated, if anything is. This does not necessarily mean that any of their features rely on this situation for its effective functioning. It may be the case that some aspects are somehow abstracted (or abstractable) from this particular situation to hold more generally. If this were the case and the abstraction preserved the feasibility then on e might be a ble to ignore the situation and model t he a gent without it. On the face of it this would seem unlikely – surely the burden of proof must rest with those who would try such a task.

Why one might expect the social situation to matter Below we outline some arguments as to why one would expect the social situation to be important for the development of an individual’s intelligence.
Language 
As mentioned above, language is important for individual intelligence and language is a social construct. This means that society is critical in the development of individual intelligence unless: either language (once constructed) could be learnt as a entirely abstract and p assive way without social i nteraction o r that it mi ght be possible to acquire a language that is not socially constructed in origin. The first seems unlikely to be the case, at least for humans. Humans learn language in a different way as a child than later, and in fact use different areas of the brain. It seems that a first, full language with all its power can only learnt by a young child, and it is unlikely that such a child would be able to learn a language in an abstract and passive way. The possibility o f the second (an non -socially constructed language) is almost impossible to judge, because we are the only example of language users and all our (full) languages are socially constructed. It i s notable that l anguages that are artificially devised (i.e. less socially constructed) are not as expressive or useful as full l anguages – on exposure to such artificial l anguages children seem t o immediately change these into fully expressive languages in one generation as a result of their innate linguistic ability and the way they interactively acquire them (examples are the development of sign language in Nicaraguan from an artificial creation and creole languages from pidgins [38]). It must be concluded that, although the last word is not in (so to speak), that language is an inherently social construct. In a related qu estion, the possibility o f private languages, there are strong arguments to say that a language cannot be private [44].

The co-evolution of human intelligence and social cooperation 
The social i ntelligence or “Machiavellian intelligence” hypo thesis (for a recent discussion see [28]) put forward the view that substantial aspects of our intelligence evolved b ecause its possession conferred social advantage. The idea is that our extensive intelligence is primarily evolved in order to keep ou r place in the social order and to manage the intricate cooperation and competition that this involves. If this is indeed the case (and it would be very odd if none of our intelligent capacity has been shaped by evolutionary pressures that are socially grounded), and given the intricacy o f our present society (which p resupposes the possession o f individual intelligence) then it seems likely that our intelligence a nd ou r society h ave c oevolved. If this is the ca se then on e would expect t hat m any aspects of our intelligence have evolved to ‘fit in’ with our society (and vice versa). It is certainly difficult to argue from single cases, but the fact that the only species to evolve a sophisticated intelligence has also evolved a sophisticated society cannot be totally ignored.（essay代写)

51Due网站原创范文除特殊说明外一切图文著作权归51Due所有；未经51Due官方授权谢绝任何用途转载或刊发于媒体。如发生侵犯著作权现象，51Due保留一切法律追诉权。
更多essay代写范文欢迎访问我们主页 www.51due.com 当然有essay代写需求可以和我们24小时在线客服 QQ:800020041 联系交流。-X（essay代写)