Conceptual metaphor, objectification and gesture--论文代写范文精选

事实上,概念隐喻理论假定,抽象的概念隐喻仍然是一个争议的来源。认知科学往往依赖于对认知语言学研究提供信息。许多方面指出,语言不再是足够的唯一来源。下面的essay代写范文进行详述。

Introduction 
Introduction Despite a plethora of research on the subject, the human capacity for abstract thought remains a mystery. We may know brain activation patterns evoked by the word love, but we are far from understanding how it is conceptualized. It has been shown in the previous chapters of this thesis that both Conceptual Metaphor Theory and ObjectificationTheory support the view that understanding abstract concepts is based on physical experience. Research demonstrates that a vast majority of abstract concepts in language and gesture is represented in concrete terms (Lakens 2010; Lakoff 1987), and many relatively abstract subjects such as communication are commonly described as sensorimotor experiences. We speak about hurtful words and force of argumentation as if speech had a physical effect; communication is defined as exchange of information as if meaning was an object handed over to an interlocutor. 

In general, everyday metaphorical language suggests that abstract concepts are understood in terms of concrete experience. Indeed, Conceptual Metaphor Theory postulates that abstract concepts are metaphorical, a statement that is still a source of controversy. Cognitive science often relies on linguistic studies to provide information regarding cognition. Many point out that language is no longer sufficient as the sole source of support for a metaphoric model of concepts (Murphy 1997: 101). As explained in previous chapters, this is largely due to the methodological limitations of CMT. Lexical and syntactical priming, omitting information that is difficult to verbalise (Ericsson and Simon 1993), vocabulary and memory limitations are all factors that may influence linguistic performance in a cognitive task. 

One of the most important problems is that it is virtually impossible to prove the existence of one conceptual metaphor over another using a set of expressions where the source domain is implicit, even though these expressions are supposed to be at the centre of interest within CMT (Gibbs 2011: 531). On the other hand, spontaneous co-speech gesture is not constrained by the same factors as speech. Gestures do not replicate the syntax of the question or the text of the problem. They convey visuospatial information in a way that is nearly impossible for speech. Spontaneous speech of most language users is 104 accompanied by gesture (Goldin-Meadow 2003). Therefore, gesture is a valuable source of information about cognitive processes, particularly those that are not readily expressed in speech like objectification. “Speech and gesture together provide a more complete picture of mental representations than does speech alone” (Alibali et al. 1999: 327). 

The previous chapter concluded that although Objectification Theory has the potential to become an important step forward for conceptual metaphor research more evidence is necessary to support it. I have shown that OT is theoretically consistent both internally with CMT, and externally with methodological approaches from outside cognitive linguistics. Objectification has been analysed as a process and an emergent feature. Research results demonstrated an objectification effect in conceptual metaphorisation. However, due to the elusive nature of underlying mappings these results need to be approached cautiously. Before recommending the introduction of Objectification Theory into the CMT paradigm further support for the theory is required. To seek this support we turn to studies in metaphorical gesture.

The importance of gesture studies for cognitive science It is almost impossible for people to talk without gesturing (Goldin-Meadow 2005). When gesture is produced spontaneously alongside speech it forms an integrated system with that speech. In this way, both speech and gesture are manifestations of the same set of cognitive processes. Because they are not constrained like language, gestures provide a window onto the thought processes of the speaker/gesturer. Alongside language data, gesture provides the most important source of evidence for metaphorical thinking (Cienki 2008; Müller 2008; Langacker 2008). One of the main assumptions of CMT is that metaphors are sets of mappings between conceptual domains. These mappings are studied on the basis of linguistic expressions in which they appear. 

However, if metaphors indeed have their basis in the conceptual system then language should be just one of their possible manifestations. In other words, conceptual metaphors should be visible in various forms of human beha- 105 viour. Research on the topic demonstrates the existence of metaphorical mappings in a wide variety of fields, including visual media, music, and dance (Cienki 2008). Increasingly gesture studies show that spontaneous gestures produced alongside speech, particularly gestures of the hands and forearms, can also constitute metaphoric expressions. Gesture studies not only provide CMT with deeper support by showing the ubiquity of metaphorical mappings in human behaviour, but also pose important questions regarding the theory itself. In this chapter I will introduce basic notions regarding metaphorical gesture studies, focusing on the conceptual aspect of gesture. We will analyse Objectification Theory in the context of gesture studies looking for evidence of the process in a multimodal context.

What is gesture It is impossible to define gesture without referring to language, and difficult to do so without referring to deeper cognitive processes. The first chapter of the present thesis discusses embodiment as a theory of mental representation. Embodiment theory aims to explain the basis of mental representation by postulating that conceptual structures developed from perceptual processes, and are influenced by this fact (Goldstone and Barsalou 1998: 234). In simpler terms: cognition depends on bodily experience. “Without the cooperation of the body, there can be no sensory inputs from the environment and no motor outputs from the agent – hence, no sensing or acting. And without sensing and acting to ground it, thought is empty.”(Robbins and Aydede 2009: 4). 

Conceptual Metaphor Theory is a marriage of Embodiment Theory and linguistic analysis, in that it postulates thought is reflected in everyday language which is demonstrably embodied. Another important way in which embodiment manifests itself in language is spontaneous gesture accompanying speech (Barsalou 2008: 628). It is important to note that the relationship between language and gesture depends upon how these words are defined.

Definitions In a broad sense, the word “gesture” can refer to any wilful bodily movement (Cienki 2008). Gestures have also been defined as classes of coordinated movements that achieve some end (Kendon 2000). For the purpose of this thesis, however, we will focus on gestures of the hands and arms. Because it is difficult to conclusively identify the purpose of any given gestural movement we will disregard the second part of the definition. In one of the earliest works on the topic Kendon (1972) introduced three distinctions: gesture units, gesture phrases, and gesture phases. A gesture unit is the largest unit identified in Kendon's hierarchy. It is the period between when hands are first raised to perform a gesture and their subsequent rest. Gesture units are composed of gesture phrases. One unit may contain one or more phrases. A gesture phrase is what we would intuitively call a gesture. Phrases have three main phases: the preparation, stroke, and retraction (Kendon 2004)14. 

The preparation phase occurs when the gesturer moves their hands from the rest position to the position where the gesture will be enacted. The space in which gesture is enacted can broadly be called the gesture space. The preparation phase may end in a prestroke hold (Kita 1990) during which the hand briefly hovers in the air in anticipation of gesture stroke. The stroke phase is the meaningful phase of gesture. It is considered to minimally constitute a gesture, so that a movement without a stroke phase is not defined as a gesture (Kendon 2004). Although strokes are synchronous with co-expressive speech ninety percent of the time (McNeill 2005), the information expressed in gesture may be complimentary to that in language. For instance, when we say “she hit him” the accompanying gesture could provide additional information about the manner of movement, such as whether the action was a slap or a friendly pat. A subtype of stroke is a stroke hold (McNeill 2005). 

A stroke hold occurs when the meaningful part of the gesture is not a movement, but a prolonged hold, for instance raising the hand into the gesture space (preparation), and holding it there as a way to indicate the upper floor of a building. If the gesture contains a stroke, the stroke phase may end in a poststroke hold. The hand freezes before a retraction maintaining the stroke’s final position and posture. The final phase of gesture is the retraction phase which marks the moment when meaning is completely discharged (McNeill 2005, 1992). The hand leaves the gesture space to enter a rest position, which is not necessarily the same location from which the preparation phase began. The retraction phase is optional because in some cases gesturers begin a new stroke immediately after the previous one. These distinctions are applied in the empirical study on objectification in gesture described further in this thesis.

Types of gesture: Kendon's continuum 
Originally, distinctions between different types of gestures have been introduced by Adam Kendon (1988). These types were arranged on a scale by McNeill (1992) who introduced them under the term “Kendon's continuum”. Gesture types located along Kendon's continuum differ in two respects: similarity to spoken language and optionality. The degree to which speech is an obligatory support for gesture decreases from gesturing to signs. At the same time the degree to which gesture has language-like properties increases. Although for the purpose of this thesis I will be focusing primarily on gesture co-ocurring with speech, it seems appropriate to discuss all of the gesture types introduced by Kendon to set a context for further discussion and analysis.(论文代写)

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