Homogeneity in Social Groups of Iraqis--论文代写范文精选

这个研究项目来自192项调查，关于在伊拉克和荷兰的二百名伊拉克企业主和经理人。调查元素包括物品，来自世界价值观调查项目(英格勒哈特),社会资本社会基准调查(Roper中心),以及社会资本库存(Narayan和卡西迪)。

Abstract
With appreciation to the Royal Institute for Inter-Faith Studies for initiating the Second World Congress for Middle Eastern Studies, this paper summarizes findings on homogeneity in community-level social groups derived from inter-ethnic research conducted during 2005 among Iraqi Arabs and Kurds living in the city of Basra, Iraq, and in the Netherlands. We found that perceptions towards out-groups were not based on religion, ethnicity, class, or location as in traditional individual-focused social networks. Patterns of perception towards out-groups seemed to be rooted in homogeneous social sub-groups with combinations of these factors. This research project used a 192-item survey of two hundred Iraqi business owners and managers in Iraq and in the Netherlands. It measured homogeneity of social group memberships. Survey elements included items drawn from the World Values Surveys (Inglehart), the Social Capital Community Benchmark Survey (Roper Center), and the Social Capital Inventory (Narayan and Cassidy).

Introduction 
This paper summarizes findings on homogeneity (all members being of the same kind) in social group memberships derived from inter-group research conducted during 2005 among Iraqi Kurds and Arabs.

Purpose 
The purpose of this project was to compare inter-group perceptions in social networks of communities of Iraqis. The main research questions addressed how social group memberships related to religious and ethnic identity, geographic location, and social capital. This project used a 192-item survey of one hundred Iraqi business owners and managers in Basra and one hundred Iraqis in the Netherlands in 2005, following up from a 32-item survey of 479 people in four locations in 2003. 1 The 2005 survey, the focus of this paper, addressed homogeneity of social group membership among business owners and managers. Survey elements included items drawn from the World Values Surveys (Inglehart2 ), the Social Capital Community Benchmark Survey (Roper Center3 ), and the Social Capital Inventory (Narayan and Cassidy 4 ). The merchant class was singled out for attention, as it seemed to be a social group with much to lose by changes in the marketplace and governance systems of Iraq. Patterns of response from our respondents to certain questions about out-groups corresponded to findings by other authors on segregation and trust in social networks (Burt 1997, Buskins 2005, Inglehart 2004, Narayan and Cassidy 2001, Putnam 1995).

Background 
What are the differences between "us" and "them"? In research terms, a group which is “just like me” is my "in-group,” and a group which is “not like me” is my "out-group." In-groups and out-groups help me distinguish between me and others, and form my perceptions of how I see myself, how I see others, and how I protect myself from others who might harm me.5 A familiar saying in the Middle East is, "I am against my brother; my brother and I are against our cousins; our family is against the world." 79% of the Basra respondents said that in case of a need, they would first ask their own family for help instead of a non-family organization. Trust (like its opposite, fear) depends on the social distance, which is the degree of familiarity and the resulting predictability of behaviour, between groups. The first point in the above saying is, "I am against my brother," and this relates to another saying of, "The friend of my friend is not necessarily my friend." Protecting myself perhaps is a higher personal priority than protecting others, and closer relationships are more valued than those which are farther away.

Conclusions 
Homogeneity. Based on answers to social group memberships, an index was constructed for in-group homogeneity and used to compare group homogeneity between Arabs and Kurds. In-group homogeneity did not reveal any significant correlations with attitudes towards foreign nation-states, after correcting for insufficient variance in the samples. High levels of homogeneity did not mean social group members were closed to contact with out-groups. Many of the Arab business respondents were in homogeneous social groups, but reported much contact with out-group members. This was also observed with Kurds-- extremely high group homogeneity, but also high levels of contact with out-group members. This is consistent with research by Martinovic, Tubergen and Maas on social integration of immigrants in the Netherlands, where they reported that amount of contact by immigrants did not correlate to social integration. 27 B. Trust. Arab respondents reported an overall index of trust of 18.4 (on a scale of 0-28) and Kurd respondents reported an index of trust of 16.5. （essay代写)

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